The preceding chapter suggested that training motivation is an important factor affecting training administration on training outcomes. Although role of training motivation has been recognized in training administration literatures, the notion has not been sufficiently discusses due to training administration theories available. Linking training motivation to a training administration will encourage upgrading of perspective on such program, enabling modification to be made on the lack of theses aspects in existing training administration theories and provide useful guidelines for practitioners to upgrade positive training outcomes via training motivation. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to present valid and reliable methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing data in order to clarify the role of training motivation.

3.1 Unit of analysis and sampling procedures

Unit of analysis defined as the major entity that you are analysing in your study (Hussey & Hussey, 1997; Sekaran, 2003). For this study, military employees were chosen as the unit of analysis because the main aim of this thesis is to show the extent to which training administration affects training outcomes in Royal Medical Corps, Malaysia.

According to Clegg (1990), the adequacy of the sample size depends on three major factors. The first is the type of statistical analysis to be undertaken. The second factor is the expected variability within the sample and the results based on previous research experiences. The third is the sample size traditionally used in a particular field of study. Although no strict guidelines exist for minimum sample sizes (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988), the sample size of this study (N= 647) is considered to be a fair representation of military employees in Malaysia Royal Medical Corps.

Many scholars (Cooper & Emory, 1995; Davis, 1996; Sekaran, 2003; Zikmund, 2000) highlight convenient sampling as a good procedure to represent the views of various students in organizations that do not allow researchers to choose sample using random technique. Under this sampling technique, individuals (subjects) who are willing to participate (e.g., survey) are selected from the population. In this sampling procedure (Cooper & Emory, 1995; Sekaran, 2003; Zikmund, 2000), survey questionnaires are distributed to military employees in Royal Medical Corps. As suggested by many scholars, this sampling technique if appropriately used in organizations that practice secrecy policies may help the researcher to collect huge amount of valuable data that may represent the population (Sekaran, 2003; Zikmund, 2000).

3.2 Research Design Process

Cross-sectional technique was used to gather data from the organizations that may yield their similarities and/or differences in characteristics (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002; Hussey & Hussey, 1997; Zikmund, 2000). In this type of research design, the study was carried out at one time over a short period which all variables questions were gathered at only one point in time. Moreover, cross sectional technique can minimise bias data and can estimate the prevalence of outcome because the sample usually taken from the whole population (Creswell, 1998; Sekaran, 2003).

Qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed in this study. While, qualitative research method involves in designing of valid and reliable instruments to obtain initial information, describing, decoding, translating and defining the meanings of phenomena in the natural setting (Van Maanen, 1983; Wright, 1996), quantitative research denotes to a method whereby a survey instrument were designed to obtain beneficial information needed to overcome a crucial research problem (Davis, 1996) and/or test the generalizability of particular factors (Wright, 1996). In combining this methods, the validity for instruments are more appropriateness, thoroughness and effectiveness (Bazeley, 2002). The research design processes are conducted through three major phases. The three phases used in this study are as follows:

3.2.1 Phase 1: In-depth Interviews

In-depth interview is a fundamental qualitative method at the early stage of exploration which it can lead to increased insight into people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviour on training administration (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). It allows the researcher to practice flexible approaches in gathering and analyzing data, and the outcomes can be constantly compared to the training administration research literature in order to put the research results in a suitable context (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002; Usunier, 1998). Interestingly, in-depth interviews methods offer well-grounded descriptions and rich explanations of the context, as well as serendipitous findings useful for theory construction (Tucker, Powell, & Meyer, 1995). It also provide more relaxed atmosphere where the respondents may feel more comfortable having a conversations with the researcher (Boyce & Neale, 2006). The information gathered through the interviews was used to develop the survey questionnaires for pilot study in the next phase.

3.2.2 Phase 2: Pilot Study

Pilot study is mostly used in exploratory research that does not require rigorous standards in obtaining suggestions from the targeted population (Davis, 1996; Zikmund, 2000). The size of a pilot group is determined by the research method (around 25 to 100 participants in most cases) (Cooper & Emory, 1995; Zikmund, 2000). The pilot study is used to verify the content of questionnaires developed for the survey. Involvement of a pilot group in the design of self-report questionnaires is vital because any uncertainties can be overcome through checking, clarifying and defining of the final form, its meaning, ordering, and structure and ascertaining the time taken to answer the questionnaire (Baker, 1991; Churchill, 1992, 1999; Churchill & Peter, 1984; Wess, 1999; Zikmund, 2000).

The pilot study was conducted in one months beginning October 2011 involving 123 military employees from Royal Medical Corps. The survey questionnaires in Malay language versions were distributed to the pilot group in Royal Medical Corps institutions around Klang Valley as shown in table 3.1. The study results were then compared with those of the in-depth interviews to improve language clarity, content and format of survey instrument for the final study (Davis, 1996; Sekaran, 2003; Usunier, 1998; Zikmund, 2000). It also helps in translating the research results into their proper context and hence increases the reliability of the research findings (Davis, 1996; Usunier, 1998).

NO

RMC INSTITUTIONS

1

HAT MIZAN

2

IPP KL BASE

3

RSAT (SG BESI, KL BASE, WARDIEBURN)

3.2.3 Phase 3: Actual Survey

Necessary measures were taken to ensure data quality which relies heavily on valid and reliable survey instruments (Davis, 1996). The first measure was the pilot study; second, proper translation between English and Malay; third, scale items were designed to accommodate the various literacy levels and cultural differences. Fourth, items that are designed to accommodate cultural differences encourage participants to respond to the questions. Finally, procedures were established to avoid bias in the interpretations of responses (Douglas & Craig, 1988). These requirements were met as described earlier.

There are certain advantages in using self-reported questionnaires (Davis, 1996). First, ease of data collection from a large sample which can be analyzed using flexible techniques at a minimum cost; and second, participants would be assured of anonymity, confidentiality, and leisureliness of response. In order to design a planned self-report questionnaire, the researcher has followed these procedures

3.2.3.1 Process of Designing the Self-Report Questionnaires

The researcher developed the first draft of self-report questionnaires based on two major sources. Firstly, the researcher documented previous sample questionnaires used in training and development program research literatures. Secondly, the researcher conducted in-depth interviews from 12th May 2011 till 12th June 2011 involving 11 experienced employees from Royal Medical Corps respectively.

The information obtained from interviews in the institutions of Royal Medical Corps was compared and the comparison was used as a guideline to identify appropriate questions and/or create new questions for this study. Then, a set of self-report questionnaire items were drafted based on the features of the conceptual framework and training administration practices in the Royal Medical Corps. This questionnaire was thoroughly discussed with the senior employees to identify the suitability, adequacy and clarity of the questions. As a result, some questions with double meanings were deleted and certain terms used in the remaining questions were further clarified. A glossary of training and development was prepared and compared to those used in the drafted questionnaire. As a result, some adjustments were made and a new set of self-report questionnaires was produced and sent to the supervisors for approval.

3.2.3.2 Translating the Research Questionnaire

English lecturer from National Defence University of Malaysia was chosen in helping the researcher in translating the English version of the questionnaire into Malay. The researcher worked together with the English lecturer for seven days to come up with the equivalent Malay version of the questionnaires. Other than that, the set of questionnaire were sent to other lecturer to obtain confirmation on the suitability of terms, phrases and meanings of questions in the Malaysian context. Both the English and Malay versions of the questionnaires were later combined into one questionnaire and distributed to 20 employees in Royal Medical Corps institutions: Hospitals, Non-Hospitals and Training Centre to check the term clarity, clearness and understandable.

Content of the Self-Report Questionnaire Design

The research questionnaire was divided into seven sections. The first section relates to personal data consisting of 8 items which were adapted from the questionnaire developed by Michael (2010) and Zulfadlizan (2010). These items are related to the personal characteristics of the respondents: first, age was measured in years. Second, gender was identified as male or female. Third, marital status was measured by single, married and widowed. Fourth, rank was identified based on military ranks. Fifth, working groups was identified based on three major groups in the organizations: administration, medical doctors and allied health science. Sixth, educational level was measured by PMR or SPM or STPM or Diploma or Degree and above. Seventh, institutions were measured in Formation Centre, Training Centre, Hospitals and Non-Hospitals. Finally, current year of service was measured in years. The personal data were used as controlling variables because this study focused on the employee attitudes.

Support in the second section is made of 6 items that were adapted from Michael (2010), Azman (2010), Sani (2009) and Rahimi (2007). These items are related to the extent to extent to which administrators provide materials and emotional support to the employee to attend training programs. These items used a 7-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (7).

Third section on communication has 2 items adapted from Michael (2010) and Azman (2010). These items are related to the extent which the ability of administrators to clearly deliver information about training programs to the employee. These items used a 7-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (7).

Training motivation in the fourth section has 6 items adapted from Azman & Inani (2010), Zulfadlizan (2010), Ng (2009) and Chiaburu & Tekleab (2005). These items are related to the extent to which the employee desire to attend, learn and participate in training programs to gain necessary knowledge, up to date skills, new abilities and positive attitudes in training programs. These items were measured using a 7-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (7).

Fifth section on training transfer has 6 items adapted from Azman & Inani (2010), Tai (2006) and Kanu (2002). These items are related to the extent which the ability of employees to adapt necessary knowledge, up to date skills, new abilities and positive attitudes in training programs to the workplace. These items used a 7-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (7).

In the sixth sections, training generalization has 2 items that were adapted from Azman (2010) and Chiaburu & Tekleab (2005). These items are related to the degree to which the ability of employee to modify necessary knowledge, up to date skills, new abilities and positive attitudes in training programs to fit situation in the workplace. These items used a 7-point scale ranging from “strongly dissatisfied (1) to “strongly satisfied” (7).

Training maintenance in the final section has 2 items adapted from Powell (2009). These items are related to the extent to which the ability of employee to continue uses what they have learnt in training programs. These items were measured using a 7-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (7). Please refer to the actual survey questionnaire as shown in Appendix B for more details.

3.2.3.4 Process of Conducting the Actual Survey

Following the cross-sectional study procedures (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991; Hussey & Hussey, 1997; Zikmund, 2000), the researcher identified Royal Medical Corps institutions in all over Malaysia. The institutions were then divided into three major sections: hospitals, non-hospitals and training centre institutions. Finally, the top management of RMC, Bahagian Perkhidmatan Kesihatan (BPK) was officially contacted to apply for permission to conduct a survey. Hence, for this study only RMC institution located in Klang Valley camps, Gemas camps and Terendak camps were chosen to be evaluated in this study. These institutions consisted of three hospitals, nine non-hospitals and one training centre.

The advantages of using the cross-sectional technique in this study are consistent with other cross-sectional studies which reveal that it may overcome time or resource constraints, facilitate investigation of a number of problems associated with organizations, and enable data collection for one time or a short period of time to be analyzed and reported (Hussey & Hussey, 1997).

The researcher took a one-month period to conduct the actual survey in the Royal Medical Corps. The data were collected through the following procedures. First, the researcher used the questionnaires that were officially approved by the supervisors. The approval and commitment from the supervisors are important to ensure that this survey project is conducted based on the professional academic research ethics. Second, permission letter to conduct the survey project were sent to BPK. This permission shows commitment from the heads of the responding organizations and signals success for this survey project.

Thirdly, contact top management of the chosen institutions to inform about the survey. The top management will then select one senior employee of the institutions to help and assist the researcher to get know of the institution and also in distributing questionnaire. Basically, there is two ways in distributing questionnaire in this study: firstly, during morning parade where all other ranks employee will gather before they do their jobs and secondly, organized one session with the employees. Hence, with these types of ways, researcher able to control their respondent which employees can ask a question if they cannot or hardly to understand the questions. As a result, 647 questionnaire were fully completed by the participants have been used for this study.

3.3 Data Analysis Techniques

This study using three approaches of analysis techniques: 1) Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program will be used to measure data screening and analysis of construct of the research data. 2) Meanwhile, Partial Least Square (PLS) will be used to test hypotheses of interests. 3) Finally, using Sobel Test to strengthen the hypotheses results.

3.3.1 SPSS program

3.3.1.1 Data Screening

This process helps to identify missing and outlier data that will affect the normality of the data. In this process, the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity are assessed by examining skewness and kurtosis values and scatter plot diagrams (Hair et al., 2006; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The univariate normality assumption of the variables was measured based on the standards: ±2.0 Skewness; and ±2.0 Kurtosis (George & Mallert, 2005; Pallant, 2001; Curran, West & Finch, 1996; Kendall & Stuart, 1958).

3.3.1.2 Analysis of Constructs

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the mean scores between two or more groups in the studied organization. In this case, independent samples t-tests were used to compare two different (independent) groups of people (i.e., gender) and ANOVA test was used to compare three and more different (independent) groups of people (i.e., age) (Hair et al., 2006; Yaacob, 2008). The results of variance analysis are useful to understand the significant differences between variables and they may be used to predict the indirect effect of demographic variables to test the mediating model (Hair et al., 2006; Yaacob, 2008).

Pearson correlation (r) was also utilized to analyze the relationship between the two constructs (Coakes & Steed, 2003; Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). Based on the correlation coefficients for the relationship between the variables we can further estimate the validity and reliability of the constructs used in the study. For example, the correlation coefficients for the relationship between the independent variable (i.e., support and communication) and the mediating variable (i.e., training motivation), and the relationship between the dependent variable (i.e., training transfer, training generalization and training maintenance) were less than 0.90, indicating the data were not affected by any serious collinearity problem (Hair et al, 2006).

3.3.2 Smart PLS

3.3.2.1 The Importance of Using Smart PLS

SmartPLS is a program that conducts a Partial Least Squares analysis which allows to simultaneously examining theory and measures (Hair, Ringle & Sarstedt, 2011). The method provides more flexibility in modeling, and is able to provide solid results in estimating the complex relationship between variables (Chin, 2010; Abdi 2003; Hulland 1999). Furthermore, the results in bootstrapping provide confidence intervals and associated statistical significance test for indirect paths (Fazli, Rosnita & Roshayati, 2012). Other than that, PLS generates latent variable scores that can be used to predict a model (Henseler, Ringle & Sinkovic, 2009; Chin, 1998).

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) refers to a visual representation that specifies the model constructs, indicator variables, and interrelationships (Paswan, 2009). It’s provides quantitative measures of the reliability and validity of the construct. Differ from exploratory factor analysis (EFA), CFA specify the number of factors a priori and specifies particular factor structure in which the researcher to indicates which items load on which factor. Other than that, CFA allows the researchers to specify correlated measurement errors and constrain loadings in performing statistical analysis. The items used in this study are considered valid with the value of factor analysis of -0.4/0.4 or greater (Hair et al, 2006).

3.3.2.3 Validity Analyses of the Instrument

Two analyses will be used to examine the validity of the measurement scale: 1) convergent validity and 2) discriminant validity.

3.3.2.3.1 Convergent Validity

Convergent validity refers to the extent which a set of indicators represent the same underlying construct (Henseler et. al., 2009). This process were measured by assessing the average variance extracted (AVE) value. AVE defined as the average percent of variation explained among the items. The value of AVE should be 0.5 or greater to suggest adequate convergent validity (Henseler et. al., 2009; Paswan, 2009).

3.3.2.3.2 Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity defined as the extent to which the constructs does not correlate with other measures and truly distinct from other constructs (Hair et. al., 2007). For this process, two analyses will be used to measuring the validity: 1) Fornell-Larcker Criterion and 2) Cross Loading.

3.3.2.3.2.1 Fornell-Larker Criterion

Fornell-larcker criterion are measure using the square roots of average variance extracted (√AVE). The value of the √AVE should be greater than the square of the correlation between that factor with other factors (Barclay, Higgins & Thompson, 1995; Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Henseler, Ringle & Sinkovics, 2009).

3.3.2.6 Cross Loading

Cross loading refers to indicator variables on one construct are assumed to be related to another construct (Paswan, 2009). It was measured between the factors which the value of items and construct must be greater than the others items and construct (Henseler et al., 2009; Gefen & Straub, 2005; Chin, 1998; Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

3.3.2.4 Reliability Analyses of the Instrument

Two analyses will be used to examine the reliability of the measurement scale: 1) item reliability and 2) composite reliability.

3.3.2.4.1 Item Reliability

Item reliability refers to a measure of the internal consistency of the observer indicator variables (Paswan, 2009). On the other hand, internal consistency reliability refers to the reliability of a block of manifest variables (Henseler et. al., 2009). The value should be 0.70 or higher to indicate adequate convergence or internal consistency (Henseler et al., 2009; Barclay et al., 1995; Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

3.3.2.4.2 Composite Reliability

Composite reliability refers to the establishment of internal consistency reliability (Fazli et. al., 2012). This process was measured using composite value and cronbach alpha value. The recommended values should be 0.60 and greater, however the value are more adequate and reliable if the value are greater than 0.80 (Sekaran dan Bougie, 2010; Henseler, et al., 2009; Chua, 2006; Nunally & Benstein, 1994).

Sobel Test

Sobel test were first proposed by Sobel (1982) which provides the standards error of ab can be shown in the below equation:

The equation explain a is the regression coefficient for the relationship between the independent variable and the mediator, b is the regression coefficient for the relationship between the mediator and the dependent variable, SEa is the standard error of the relationship between the independent variable and the mediator, and SEb is the standard error of the relationship between the mediator variable and the dependent variable. The test of the indirect effect is given as a Z test which the value must larger than 1.96 to meet the acceptable standard (Baron & Kenny, 2012).

Testing the Research Model

This process involves two main hypotheses which are: 1) direct effect model and 2) mediating effect model.

3.3.4.1 Testing Direct Effect Model

For testing the hypothesized model, the structural model is assessed by examining the path coefficient (standardized beta (β)), T statistic (t) and the R square (R2) to indicate the overall predictive strength of the model (Henseler et. al., 2009; Carmona, 2008). The value of t-statistic should be exceed 1.96 to achieve the standard of significance value (Henseler et. al., 2009; Chin, 1998).

3.3.4.2 Testing Mediating Effect Model

As the direct effect model, mediating effect model also use the path coefficient (standardized beta (β)), T statistic (t) and the R square (R2). The value of t-statistic should be exceed 1.96 achieve the standard of significance value (Henseler et. al., 2009; Chin, 1998).

The Outcomes of the In-Depth Interview

The in-depth interviews provide useful information in comparing information with past studies in order to determine major themes which the themes can be identified by examining similar patterns of response and then assessing the patterns in relation to the literature reviewed earlier (Boyce & Naele, 2006). The technique is highly recommended since the researcher can easily adapt the questions being asked, clarifies doubts, and pick up non-verbal cues from the respondents (Sekaran & Bougie, 2009).

The interviews were conducted in one month period from 12th May 2011 at the studied institutions. Within this period, the researcher contacted the senior employees who have reasonable experience with training administration in Royal Medical Corps. Eleven senior employees participated in the interviews and their characteristics are shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Respondent profiles during in-depth interviews.

INSTITUTION

TOTAL

EXPERIENCES

GROUP

DATE

Hospitals

4

9 years – 19 years

Administrative, Doctors and Allied Health Service

June 2011

Non-hospitals

3

4 years – 13 years

Doctors and Allied Health Service

June 2011

Training Centre

(INSAN)

4

4 years – 18 years

Administrative and Allied Health Service

May 2011

The in-depth interviews were implemented through various face-to-face discussions and followed-up for clarification using telephone and internet. The main objective of these interviews was to collect initial information about the current training administration practices, training motivation features, effect of training administration (i.e., support, communication, assignment, delivery) on training motivation, and effect of training motivation on training transfer, training generalization and training maintenance in the studied institutions. The outcomes of the interviews were shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Summary of the Information from the In-Depth Interviews

General Questions

Definitions and relationship between the variables

Hospitals

Non-Hospitals

INSAN

Training Administrations

RMCs responsible in providing quality health care services for Malaysia military personnel’s.

Same opinions.

Same opinions.

Bahagian Perkhidmatan Kesihatan (BPK) responsible in RMC secretarial duties such as administration of all RMCs members and also activities in RMC.

Training, course as well as career development for RMCs employees were planned and designed by BPK.

Training programs are designed to increase employee careers development especially inculcating necessary knowledge, up to date skills, new abilities and positive attitudes to increase medical staff functions.

Institut Latihan Kesihatan Angkatan Tentera (INSAN) was established to provide medical trainings.

Examples of training in KKD

Training programs consists of: academic courses and military courses.

Same opinions.

Same opinions.

Academic courses for doctors such as professional programs and seminars programs.

Academic courses for other ranks such as Basic Medical Course, Trait Courses for class I, II and III.

Military courses for doctors contain Kursus Pegawai Ikhtisas, Kursus Perubatan Ketenteraan,

Military courses for other ranks contain Kursus Kadar.

Every KKD personnel also have an opportunity to attend outside trainings such as from Ministry of Health, Institute of Higher Learning Education or Military Medical Institute in other countries.

Definition of terms

Definition and relationship between the variables

Hospitals

Non-Hospitals

INSAN

Training Support

Top management who provide emotional and material support for employee to attend external and internal courses.

For example, employee receives recognition and appreciation from top management.

Same opinions.

For example, giving employee opportunities to furthering studies.

Same opinions.

For example, giving advice about employee career development.

Training Communication

Top managements clearly deliver information about training programs to the employees.

For example, detailed explanation on benefits of attending training programs.

Same opinions.

For example, giving feedbacks about employee assessment evaluations.

Same opinions.

For example, give participation letter to the selected employee early before training started.

Training Motivation

The enthusiast to learn, attend and participate in training programs.

For example, contribute in training activities.

Feels of worthwhile to attend training programs.

For example, doing assignments and homework’s.

Interest to learn in training programs.

For example, focus in classes.

Training Transfer

Employees use and adapt necessary knowledge, up to date skills, new abilities and positive attitudes gain from training programs in their workplace.

For example, giving a chance to practice.

Same opinions.

For example, sharing knowledge with work colleague.

Same opinions.

Same opinions.

Training Generalization

Employee modifies what they have learned in training programs with the new situation or their job environment.

For example, posting to the new place.

Same opinions.

For example, work under new leaders.

Same opinions.

For example, work in new environments.

Training Maintenance

Employees continue use the necessary knowledge, up to date skills, new abilities and positive attitudes.

For example, discussing with peers and work groups.

Same opinions.

For example, revision class.

Same opinions.

For example, knowledge sharing with experience employee.

Relationship between Training Administration, Training Motivation

Definition and relationship between the variables

Hospitals

Non-Hospitals

INSAN

Training Support and Training Motivation

The willingness of top management to provide adequate emotional and material support will increase employee motivation to attend and learn necessary knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes in training programs.

Same opinions.

Same opinions.

Training Communication and Training Motivation

The ability of top managements to clearly deliver information about training programs may motivate employees to attend and learn in training programs.

Same opinions.

Same opinions.

Relationship between Training Administration, Training Motivation and Training Outcomes (i.e., Training Transfer, Training Generalization and Training Maintenance).

Definition and relationship between the variables

Hospitals

Non-Hospitals