This study will look at the mental health impacts on long term injuries of sportsmen aged between 18 and 25 who compete in amateur team sports. There is significant research in relation to the impact on mental health on elite sportsmen; however there is limited research in the field of amateur sportsmen. The argument at the crux of my dissertation is that anyone who competes in sport can hold a strong sense of athletic identity no matter their level. Sport England (2016) state that almost 16 million people participate in sporting activities at least twice a week, the majority not to an elite level, this implies that a vast proportion of the population could benefit from this research.
Mental health is politically, morally and socially important. Addis and
Mahalik (2003) highlight that men heavily under use mental health services;
they sort problems through participating in sport or drinking (Connolly 2015).
Hardy (2015) looks at the increased focus on men’s mental health in
contemporary society in relation to a neoliberal society. Organizations and
companies are more aware of the benefits of their workforce being both
physically and mentally healthy. As a result of this there are more services
and tools to help with mental health in place, an attempt to make it a more
preventive measure to increase the productivity of men in the workplace (Hardy
2015). This section highlights that male mental health is a contemporary issue
and is one of society’s foremost challenges (Bell 2015).
In a political sense, a healthy mental state is directly related to a
more productive workforce (Hardy 2015). In my opinion the most important aspect
of this study is to understand the moral and social implications that mental
health can have on an individual. The more research and case studies that
become accessible to society about male mental health, the greater the chance
of a reduced negative stigma towards men having mental health issues. This
might make them more willing to come forward to receive help and use the
services in place (Addis and Mahalik 2003).
I have a deep interest in this area as a result of an eight month period
where I was unable to compete in sport because of an injury. I felt that I
experienced negative impacts on my mental health as a result of this. I was and
still am eager to understand experiences of others in relation to mine. I have
always had a love for sport and for the teams that I have played in. Being a
part of a team prior to my injury and on my return to fitness was vitally
important to me. The support that I received coming back was amazing, however I
struggled to be around my team and more broadly sport throughout my injury. I have
always had a strong sense of athletic identity and I now know that I did not
hold the same athletic identity throughout my injury; I did not meet the needs
of my masculine identity across this period either. I chose to focus my
research on male, amateur athletes from a team sport as a result of this.
The research question is: To what extent do long term injuries have a negative impact on men, aged between 18- 25 within competitive, amateur, team sport?
To utilise personal understanding and experiences an auto-ethnography
was used along with four semi-structured interviews to provide the sample. This
allowed the acquisition of ‘rich’ understandings of others experiences and pin
them against that of the researcher. My experience enabled me to develop an
interview guide to gain the in depth understandings that were vital to help map
the understandings of the impact of long term injuries on mental health. The
overarching findings highlighted that the impact of long term injuries were
severe. Participants unveiled feelings of ‘distress’, ‘anxiety’, ‘depression’,
‘unhappy’, this highlights the importance of the study. I found that no matter
their reasons for participating whether it be more extrinsic or intrinsic, each
held a strong sense of athletic identity. In most cases the injury caused the
individual a reduced sense of athletic identity and their masculine ideals were
not being met as a result. I further found, that in most cases, being part of a
team increased their sense of athletic identity. Most enjoyed being part of a
team before and after the injury because of the support that they were given.
But there were key findings that during the injury process itself, being a part
of a team did not help the participants deal with their injuries.
It is an important area to research and
exposes the experience of those willing to share. It provides the potential for
people to understand the experiences of others. Learning about why they might
be feeling certain emotions. It can enable readers to make a change to their
attitude o routine as a result of this; with the intention of reducing the
negative impact that they might feel as a result of their long term injury.
Further to this and perhaps most importantly, this research has the power and
the potential to highlight the need for a bigger focus on the mental health of
athletes who compete in competitive sport at an amateur level.
Before going into sport, masculinity and athletic identity, it is
important to understand an individual’s ‘identity’ and how that can influence a
person’s behaviour and frame of mind. Stryker (2002) explains identity as
internal understandings, positional beliefs and values which are directed to
participating in sport in the sense of a strong athletic identity. Carter
(2013) argues that our sense of identity acts as stimuli to certain behaviours
within certain situations. Also arguing that our identity can help us fit in to
social surroundings and experiences. Individuals in this study will behave in
different ways in a reaction to their injury. Inglehart and Baker (2000)
explain that certain situations and matters are seen to hold more meaning to
different people. Certain situational occurrences will have different levels of
influence on an individual’s behaviour (Hardy and Carlo 2005). Adams et al
(2010) state that identity is key to successfully moving between social
situations and life changes. This shows that each individual will have their
own unique experiences in relation to their injury.
An individual’s identity is of the upmost importance to this
study, but the theory of social identity, also holds relevance and needs to be
understood. The study is underpinned by the understanding of impacts on mental
health in relation to team sports. Social identity differs from an individual’s
identity, it is how an individual identifies and perceives their attachment and
participation within a group (Bruner et al 2014) rather than their own innate
identifications (Stryker 2002). It essentially comes down to how individuals
see themselves in regards to a sense of belonging to that group (Hogg and
Abrahams 2001). Nezlek and Smith (2005) talk of positive outcomes to
individuals who have a strong social identity within a group; they face
stronger social interaction and are more likely to express positive behaviour
towards other group members. This is particularly important to understand and
give thought to when studying mental health in relation to long term injuries
from athletes within team sports. Rees et al (2015) highlight that within a
sporting group those who have strong social interactions are likely to pursue and
to uphold their part of the ‘we’ in the group and to engage in bettering
themselves, working hard to be part of the ‘we’ rather than just the ‘I’(Cikara
et al 2011; Sanderson 2013; Turner et al 1994). As a result of this there is a
development of a sense of belonging because each of the members of the group
identify and become satisfied with the role that members of the group play
(Rees et al 2015).
In the case of this dissertation the ‘social identity’ refers to
how the individual fits with the ‘we’ of their team. It is important to
understand the characteristics and social means of team sports in order to
understand certain aspects of masculinity and athletic identity in relation to
them. Baumeister and Leary (1995) argue that being a part of a sport team
satisfies a human necessity for feeling a sense of belonging and fitting in,
being a part of something. However, Klein and Heuser (2008) see how a team
setting can be very difficult to understand and to fit into. They point out
various different aspects of a team such as politics, hierarchies, and team
dynamics. Particularly highlighted, are the difficulties of a new individual
joining the group or in terms of this dissertation the challenges of returning
to a team after a long absence due to injury (Bauer et al 2007 ;Kim et al 2005;
Jones and Wallace 2005). Martin et al (2014) believe that each team is unique
in its set environments, individuals may better suit different team
environments, but ultimately a sports team does have the capabilities to
provide the sense of belonging (Baumeister and Leary 1995) and teammate social
identity (Bruner et al 2014).
Participating in a team sport can have various positive impacts to
the self, for example, reaffirming or developing moral values and
self-awareness (Shields, LaVoi, Bredemeier and Power, 2007; Weiss, Smith, and
Stuntz 2008). Identifying strongly within a team can meet specific personal
needs that contribute to motivation for continual support from the individual
to the team, and then after from the team to the individual (Rees et al 2015).
There are further links with a strong social identity within a team, to the
individual’s performance and ability to cope with challenges and certain issues
that arise. Haslam et al (2008) and Haslam et al (2009) argue that this
provides the support that enables individuals to cope with different life
changes such as the impact of long term injuries and alterations in their
general life processes. Further to this, Podlog and Eklund (2007) argue that
social identity has an impact on the recovery of sport injuries. They suggest
that those who have a strong social identity and sense of belonging to a group
have a more positive experience because of support, relatedness and increased
self-esteem, which inevitably helps an individual to adjust to the situations
that arise and enables them to cope positively with them.
There are many seen positives to competing in sport and more
specifically within team sports but there are also negatives, some of which are
discussed here. Despite many academics highlighting the impact of sport in term
of stress release. Arnold et al (2013) and Hanton et al (2005) point out ways
in which being involved in a sport team can have negative impacts on an
individual’s stress levels; personal relationships can be a huge factor to
increasing stress levels. For example, the stress of who gets chosen for the
match day squad or, if you experience character clashes with the other members
of the team or the coach. There are further stress factors associated with the
pressures of meeting the demands of the team and performance heights that are
expected of athletes. All of these can lead to negative impacts on an
individual’s mental health such as anxiety and feeling distressed (Benson et al
2015). So although sport can be seen as great to be a part of, even I as an
athlete accept that there can also be a negative impact of sport on an
individual’s mental health.
Having discussed how being part of a team sport can impact an
individual and their mental health I believe it is important to discuss the
more specific roles within an individual’s identity and athletic identity more
directly. A specific part of an individual’s athletic identity that I am
interested in is masculinity. Within competitive sport it is widely believed
that hegemonic masculinity is allied with and fulfilled through sporting
expertise and skill, a competitive nature and to have the capability of
verifying yourself through physical strength and power (Coad 2002; Connell
2000). Sparkes (1997) argues that an individual’s body and masculinity are directly
significant and a piece of your formed identity. Cole (2008) explains that the
ideals of hegemonic masculinity are very hard to meet because of the
constricted regulatory confines surrounding the theory. Leaving few who end up
meeting the hegemonic ideals.
Masculinity is defined through personal socialization and
communication through social experiences, in this sense within their team or
more broadly entire club setting. Individuals have their own distinct culture
and influences that hold them accountable to their own values, norms and what
behaviours they see to be fit and adequate to their individual identity
(Schwartz 1999; Schwartz 1997). According to Stets and Burke (2005), once an
individual has formed their ideals of hegemonic masculinity within their
athletic identity they will endeavour to be certified and approved by others
within their situational surroundings, in this case a sport setting. Stets and
Burke (2005) suggest that the individuals mostly seek the certification and
approval from others who are significant to their surroundings such as a coach,
most valuable player or team captain in a sporting sense. Showing how this can
inform understandings of mental health pertaining from sport. Cast and Burke
(2002) propose that when the ‘others’ in the social settings do not adhere and
approve an individual’s hegemonic masculine athletic identity, problematic
responses of strain and tension can occur.
Coakley (2009) highlights multiple features and issues with
hegemonic masculinity from a sporting perspective. The main concept that I gain
from Coakleys (2009) work is the concept that within athletic identity
individuals that play competitively can be and often are extremely devoted and
enthusiastic to their sport and will take multiple risks to achieve their aims.
Coakley (2009) writes that a strong sense of athletic identity and hegemonic
masculinity means that an individual will hold their sport above other aspects
of their life and will devote significant amounts of their time to it.
Within masculinity there are various different activities and ways
in which one can be seen as masculine. De Visser and McDonnell (2013)
understand that sporting activities are seen to be the highest forms of
masculine behaviour and hold higher levels of ‘masculine capital’ than
activities such as smoking or drinking. This is vitally important to
understand, as this dissertation looks to understand the impact of long term
injuries, which inevitably means a loss of participation in sporting
activities. The research is important in trying to understand how athletes are
able to meet their masculine needs when they are injured. Further to this,
there is thought that the age group being researched in this dissertation have
an increased sense of masculinity amongst their athletic identity (Arnett 2000;
La Fontana and Cillessen 2009). De Visser et al (2009) argue that men do not
have to employ all ideals of masculine behaviour for them to be considered
masculine. ‘Masculine capital’ is a concept where individuals can ‘trade’
certain masculine behaviours for others to reach their ideal masculine level
(De Visser et al 2009; De Visser and McDonnell 2012). In relation to the study
this shows that individuals can see themselves as masculine and hold it
strongly as part of their athletic identity even if they reject the forms of
hegemonic masculinity.
Anderson (2005) suggests that ‘masculine capital’ acts as a
compensatory tool to allow individuals to counter-act non-masculine behaviours.
An example of this in a real life situation is an athlete who does not drink
alcohol but is able to increase their seen masculinity by being a skilled
athlete (Anderson 2005; De Visser et al 2009; McGuffey and Rich 1999). It
provides individuals with the opportunity to combat potential negative attacks
on their masculinity and more broadly, athletic identity (De Visser and Smith
2006; De Visser and McDonnel 2012) and therefore could be argued to help their
mental health. De Visser and McDonnell (2013) argue the heightened importance
with masculine capital and understanding of it as a concept alongside hegemonic
masculinity. Seeking hegemonic, masculine adherence can have negative impacts
as individuals can be willing to take part in dangerous or unhealthy behaviours
to acquire hegemonic masculinity, which Cole (2008) states is unachievable for
most. Masculine capital can allow individuals to feel masculine as it
enables individuals to reject specific unachievable forms of hegemonic
masculinity.
Connell (1995) argues that despite hegemonic masculinity being
just one view on masculinity as a subject, it is ranked higher than all others.
Cole (2008) gained understanding that a significant percentage of male athletes
saw hegemonic masculinity as part of their athletic identity and that they
often used it as a form of criteria by which they would assess their
performance as being masculine. Individuals can gain a sense of acceptance and
seen to be of a higher standing in their social group when they are meeting
ideals of hegemonic masculinity within their athletic identity. Cole (2008)
suggests that hegemonic masculinity is a significant part of team sport and for
the individuals participating in this. Masculinity is widely seen as being
socially constructed within the environment. The team (social group) is seen to
legitimate forms of masculinity, instilling the sense of acceptance and
belonging to the individuals.
Cole (2008) identifies another concept of masculinity, identifying
the idea of ‘mosaic masculinity’. He explains this as men drawing their own
sense of masculinities from a wide range of areas that fit their ideals of
masculinity and to their own athletic identity. Within this concept there is an
understanding that not all men can meet the perfect ideals of hegemonic
masculinity as a result of the ‘boundaries’ being so narrow. Coles (2008)
argues that within ‘mosaic masculinity’ individuals construct their own ideals
of what the perfect masculinity is. They construct this through their social
settings, environment and experiences throughout life to create their own
ideals to enact as part of their athletic identity. Individuals concentrate
their ideals of masculinity on specific parts of hegemonic masculinity that
they see to be specific to their needs of their athletic identity and
performance within the group and within participation. Individuals discard
other ideals of hegemonic masculinity that they do not see to benefit them and
to be of a need to their athletic identity. An example of this is ideals of
strength, within standard idealistic views of hegemonic masculinity the idea of
strength is being physically strong however in the concept of mosaic
masculinity the individual might understand their ideals of strength to being
mentally tough and strong. The individual would reject the notion of being
physically strong and not seek to adhere to this area of masculinity.
According to Coles (2008), when individuals conform to mosaic
masculinity it enables them to still feel part of the group and to meet the
masculine needs and ideals of the group as they still aim to meet certain
ideals of hegemonic masculinities. They still feel a sense of belonging to the
wider group. This helps to stop or reduce feelings of subordination within a
group of individuals who do meet the ideals of hegemonic masculinity. It still
allows the individual to get feelings of reassurance and approval from the
group. Cole (2008) further argues that this allows a greater sense of
achievement in everyday life as they feel self-assured and self- confident;
feeling that they meet the needs of society and do not feel marginalized or
subordinated from society. However if an individual gets injured it is possible
that they will not be meeting the needs of their masculine capital. This can
have an impact on their mental health.
As stated throughout, this dissertation is seeking to understand
the impact of long term injuries on mental health. We need to understand how
the ideals and masculinity of an individual’s athletic identity are met without
the participation of sport. There is a lot of research on injuries as shown
below by various academics. Hootman et al (2007) describes an injury as an
athlete who is hurt and therefore is incapable of participating in activity for
any phase of time. Benson et al (2015) argue that all athletes should prepare
themselves for the occurrence of picking up an injury. Maffuli et al (2005)
suggest that injuries are so prevalent in athletes because, even from a young
age countless amounts of athletes have taken part in exhaustive and rigorous
training resulting in injuries as an outcome. Benson et al (2015) highlight the
danger of psychological reactions to injuries and not being able to participate
in sport. Suggesting that injuries can and often do uncover psychological and
mental health issues than can be as serious as anxiety, depression and eating
disorders. Benson et al (2015) argue that the reasons for such severity in
issues within mental health from lay off from sport through injury is that many
have not experienced injuries before and especially if the individual started
participating at a young age then they have not established any methods and
ways of dealing with absences from sport.
Johnson (2000) and Putukian (2015) highlight further issues with
the psychological state of an injured athlete showing that injured athletes who
are suffering from mental health issues take longer to recover from the injury.
As a result of stress muscle tensions increase and so does the risk and
severity of injuries. Putukian (2015) found that over twenty percent of the
athletes within his study suffer from depression. Further to this Putukian
(2015) gained understanding that from those who had informed the research of
feelings of pain from sport had a considerably higher chance of suffering from
symptoms of depression. Putukian (2015) is aware that there are other responses
to injury and ones that are seen to be less serious than anxiety, depression
and eating disorders. The ‘less’ serious emotional responses can quickly
trigger more serious mental health issues (Putukian 2015). This shows the
importance of returning from injury as quickly as possible as the impact on
mental health can develop over time.
It is important to understand that less serious reactions to
injury such as depression, anxiety and eating disorders can still have a
negative effect on an athlete’s life. Clement et al (2013) highlight strain and
pressure, Udry et al (1997) highlight feelings of anger, Johnston and Carrol
(1998) highlight feelings of astonishment and disbelief, and Vergeer (2006)
highlights feelings of annoyance. Although these are initially seen as a less
serious reaction to injury, they can build and manifest into the more ‘serious’
reactions. This can be caused as a result of the injury being long term or if
the individual has reactions to new situations and surroundings. Wiese-
Bjornstal et al (1998) suggest that each individual constructs their own
meaning from their injury. They face different situational factors, which
influence their reaction and response to injury in different ways.
Hudson et al (2014) found that within his study of injuries in
Australian Rules Football, athletes who have been sidelined with a long term
injury, isolate themselves away from their team and group. Prior research
carried out by Ruddock- Hudson (2012) explains the importance and need for
emotional support throughout the injury and highlighted its help in the healing
process. This emotional support can come from teammates, physiotherapists or
strength and conditioning coaches (Bianco and Eklund 2001; Tracey 2003).
Reactions to injury differ to each specific individual identity
and experiences. Identities provide individuals with their own set of
standards, which they then contrast in different social situations, activities
and groups McGregor, Haji, Nah and Teper (2008). An area of identity that
I am extremely interested in is sport. Britton et al (1993) and Grove et al
(1997) suggest that participation in physical activity normally goes together
with feelings of obligation and commitment. Those who participate in sport can
hold an athletic identity, which Britton et al (1993) describe as ones role as
an athlete. It is constructed as holding high value to them through both their
mind-set and their physical participation. Eldridge (1983) argues that a vast
amount of individuals who participate in multiple activities have a strong
sense of belonging and commitment to the athletic role that they perform.
Heyman (1987) argues that allowing this to be given a social science based
definition of athletic identity suggests that it can be heavily influenced by
the different social surroundings and actors such as sports teams, coaches and
friends. Hogg (2000) highlights the power that having an athletic identity can
have; explaining that it can result in the individual’s perceived identity
being a strong motivational impact on ones feelings and actions.
Baillie and Danish (1992) believe that those who feel a strong
connection with athletic identity are likely to feel and experience a wide
range of difficulties when attempting to change their emotional and social
needs and perceptions when they are no longer able to participate in sport and
fulfil their ideals of athletic identity. So far I have talked a lot about
masculinity, being hegemonic, mosaic and masculine capital. Masculinity, in any
form can be a large part of an individual’s athletic identity. Sparkes (1997) highlights
the significance of masculinity to upholding an individual’s identity. Arguing
that younger athletes often seek the ideals of a physically strong and fit
body. This is significant because your sense of athletic identity guides your
reactions in terms of emotions and behaviour to the direct situations that you
are in; it enables you to interpret your experiences and certain events in your
athletic career in a unique, personal way (Markus 1977). Injury will have a
different impact on every individual but this shows that it has the potential
to impact an individual’s mental health.
Markus (1977) argues that those who hold a high sense of athletic
identity will identify and feel stronger repercussions of the situation than
someone who has a much lower sense of athletic identity. Benson et al
(2015) suggest that in the result of the end of an individual’s athletic career
the individual will continue to try to uphold and endorse their athletic
identity, including their ideals of masculinity in order to meet their
understood role as an athlete. This belief upholds Baillie’s and Danish’s
(1992) ideas of experiencing struggles of changing their emotional, social
feelings and stance to meet the needs of new surroundings. Holding the
potential to increase the impact on an individual’s mental health. Brewer et al
(2010) explain that as a result of different settings in different group(s) the
individual will attempt to distance themselves from their perceived athletic
identity as they are unsure as to how they will now meet the perceptions of
their identity.
Having a strong sense of athletic identity can have positive, but
also negative effects on an individual. It is important to understand both of
these sides when looking at athletic identity. Both aspects can lead to drastic
effects on an individual’s mental health. McPherson (1980) highlights the
benefits of a strong athletic identity resulting in a strong understanding and
sense of self. If athletes are meeting the ideals of their athletic identity
they are more positive in other areas of their life because they have a strong
sense of belonging within their athletic role. They feel that they are a part
of something bigger than an individual and take their place happily amongst a
specific social group, which can have a positive impact on an individual’s
mental health. Petitpas (1987) further suggests that it allows more effective
engagement in building social relationships and has the ability to add to an individual’s
confidence, which has a knock on effect to their wider social interactions.
Additional positives of a strong sense of athletic identity are
motivational and performance based positives. A strong athletic identity can
have performance based positives (Danish 1983; Werthner and Orlick 1986).
Britton et al (1993) argue that it can increase level of performance because of
increased intrinsic motivation. They argue that it makes them more likely to
attend every session, putting all of their effort into a session; resulting in
a higher intensity at training over those who hold a lesser sense of athletic
identity. From my auto- ethnography you can see that at University I train up
to four times a week and have at least one game a week on top of that, which is
a huge time commitment. The sessions are often at unsociable hours of the day
with two training sessions at 07.30- 09.00 on Monday and Tuesday mornings. From
this you can see the high levels of commitment and my sense of athletic
identity. For example others in the squad that did not have such a strong sense
of athletic identity might miss some of those early morning sessions. These
performance benefits can add to my sense of masculinity and have an impact on
my mental health at the time but also throughout my injury.
Despite there being many positives of a strong athletic identity
there are also negatives associated to them. Murphy et al (1996) argue that
having a strong athletic identity can have negative repercussions for life
beyond sport. They go as far to describe it as being ‘dysfunctional’. It can
lead to a lack of ambition and lack of desire to locate and seek out careers
after retirement. Stets and Burke (2005) suggest that those who hold ideals of
masculinity within their athletic identity are often top performers at their
level. Arguing that if the athletes career, post sport, is not at the top of
the job ladder then they might struggle to deal with accepting their new
masculine identity. This is just one example of the negative effects of a
strong athletic identity in association with retirement (Alfermann, Stambulova
and Zemaityle 2004).
Cecic et al (2004) further emphasise the risk of negative impacts
of post retirement from sport for those who hold a strong athletic identity.
Danish (1983) explains the strenuous burden of training and matches, more often
than not mean that the athlete has to focus the majority of their time on this
and have to reduce if not cut out other activities in order to achieve their
highest level of performance. Danish (1983) regards this as why there is a seen
lack of desire to seek out future career plans. Sparkes (1998) further explains
the potential of limited career paths by suggesting that individuals with a strong
sense of athletic identity immerse themselves so deep within their sport and
competition that they are less likely to have recognised the importance of
education and overall life potentials. Sparkes (1998) goes as far to say that
this increases the risks of mental health issues when athletes retire or are
forced to quit sport due to injury.
It is important to understand the different impacts of a high
sense of athletic identity on different ages of individuals. Houle et al (2010)
found that the age of individuals who are participating in this study hold a
much greater sense of athletic identity than other age groups. Houle et al
(2010) suggests that this has an increased impact on their mental and physical
state, some in a positive light and others in negative ways. Houle et al (2010)
highlight that an individual’s social identity is a large part of the athletic
identity for individuals of this age. In a sense of mosaic masculinity and
masculine capital, it helps us to understand how social identities can be
prevalent for those aged eighteen to twenty five. The social side of one’s
athletic identity can help to reach the individual’s ideals and keep them
feeling a sense of belonging even when injured. Benson et al (2015) argue that
the greater sense of athletic identity in individuals of this age means that
the end of a career, as a result of an injury, holds greater risk to an
individual’s mental health.
This dissertation is underpinned by a qualitative research approach.
Barnham (2014) states that this will enable me to gain a greater understanding
of the attitudes, behaviours and responses to long term injuries by the
participants of the study. Sparkes and Smith (2014) describe qualitative
research as an inquiry into social events or activities in an attempt to understand
and interpret individual accounts and experiences of specific incidents.
Barnham (2014) further justifies the use of a qualitative research approach in
my research, as I am primarily interested in understanding the responses of the
participants to long term injury and `why` the participants of the study have
responded in their own unique way. A quantitative research approach would not
allow me to gain the deep understandings that I seek throughout the
dissertation as it provides data stems rather than understandings. Charmaz
(2004) prompts us, that in order to gain the rich understandings of experiences
of long term injuries on the individual’s mental health, it is important to
gain the understandings from the “inside”.
Martin (2011) argues that there has been an over emphasis on the
dissimilarities between the qualitative and quantitative research methods,
which has led to an unfair comparison between them; each provide us with
relevant and useful information. Walsh and Koelsch (2012) explain that qualitative
research is a broadly used name for a large group of methods for carrying out
research. Denzin and Lincoln (2005) highlight that there is not one form of
qualitative research that is the `right` one to use, explaining that each
method has its own benefits and limitations.
Markula and Silk (2011) describe a paradigm as a set of rules that
govern the research process; it guides every technique that you use throughout
the study (Kuhn 1970). Understanding your paradigmatic stance is vitally
important to your research (Lincoln 2010). I chose a humanist interpretive
paradigm. It demonstrates my understanding of what is relevant and useable
knowledge. I wish to gain understanding of rich and valid experiences opposed
to numerical data stems that you find from using quantitative research methods
(Lincoln 2010). It demonstrates my subjective and epistemological stance and
the relationship that I will have with the interviewees; I understand that the
participants and I are inter- dependant in the construction of the data
produced (Sparkes and Smith 2014). I heavily value this stance throughout the
research process. That is evident through not only the choice of paradigm but
through my choice of using both an auto-ethnography and semi structured interviews
to collect the data.
Guba and Lincoln (1994) explain that the paradigmatic stance is based on
my own personal views and opinions on the world and my position within the
world and the research project. The humanist interpretive paradigm supports the
objectives of my research and strongly correlates the epistemological and
ontological stance that I take throughout the research. I view the research
from a relativist ontological stance.
The paradigm follows a subjective epistemological stance recognising my
interactive position within the interview process and the use of auto-
ethnography. Use of an auto-ethnography makes the research somewhat unique and
adds a highly beneficial transcript to be analysed along with the information
gained from interviewing the other participants. Markula and Silk (2011)
understand that through this paradigm I will be able to find and understand the
multiple meanings that individuals have attached to their experiences of long
term injuries (Manning 1997). I have
chosen these qualitative research methods as they are designed to enable me to
identify interpretations and understandings of the mental health issues
associated with long term injuries (Creswell 2007).
Markula and Silk (2011) suggest that using a humanist interpretivist
paradigm allows you to pin the individual experiences of the participants
injuries together; enabling you to understand the different experiences to
different situations and gain an in-depth understanding from a researcher’s
perspective. This dissertation is a narrative that sets out to use an
interpretivist paradigm to paint a picture and showcase participant’s
experiences of injuries (Holstein and Gubrium 2005). It is important to compare
and contrast the data collected but it is vital that the individual stories are
told at the same time, the humanist interpretivist paradigm fits these needs.
The sample I used for my dissertation was heavily discussed with my
dissertation supervisor; it consisted of my own auto-ethnography alongside four
semi structured interviews (Markula and Silk 2011). Due to the resources and
time to carry out the dissertation it was agreed that this would be a
sufficient amount of data to explore the research question. The sample was
selected and chosen ‘purposefully’ in order to gain understanding of specific
information. This meant that I was able to seek out ‘rich’ case studies to gain
an in depth understanding that I would not have achieved if I had used a random
sampling method that many quantitative studies use (Markula and Silk 2011).Within ‘purposeful’ sampling Patton (2002) lists multiple variations
that are suited to more specific studies. In choosing my sample based on
criteria Patton (2002) suggests that I used ‘Criterion’ sampling. I chose
individuals, to be a part of the sample, whom were male, between the ages of
18- 25 and had experienced an injury for a minimum of three months. In the
discussion the four interviewees are referred to by their psydenyms, being
Perice, Darwin, Sergei and Kenny.
Auto- ethnographies are a relatively new method, described as an account
of the self in the form of an assembly of narratives (Ellis and Bochner 2000);
Cladinin and Connelly 2000). It encompasses your own experiences and
understandings of events with the researcher at the crux of the inquest. The
auto- ethnographic form of research in my dissertation provides a different
viewpoint and perception of mental health issues associated with long term
injuries in sport (Barone and Eisner 1997). Ellis and Bochner (2000)
argue that one of the main benefits of the method is the link between the
personal understandings to the wider cultural world. It allows me as the
researcher to fully unveil and divulge my experiences of mental health
associated with my injury. Pinning them against the wider social issues, which
I will gain understanding of through the use of semi- structured
interviews.
McIntosh and Morse (2015) explain that the purpose of semi structured
interviews is to gain in-depth understandings of others’ experiences in
relation to the study being carried out. The aim of the interview is to gain
subjective understandings of the individual’s lived experiences of long term
injuries. Richard and Morse (2013) explain the structure of semi structured
interviews. I will take a guided question sheet into the interview, which will
form the basis on the interview. The benefit of a semi structured interview is
that as the researcher I can, at any point, go away from the guide if I want to
probe around specific answers to gain greater understanding of specific areas
(McIntosh and Morse (2015). Irvine et al (2013) take note of the benefit to
probing and straying from the question guideline to seek greater understanding,
however also suggest that it is key to keep a sense of the guideline throughout
the interview process. They want to ensure that the data collected can be
compared and contrasted with the data from the other interviews.
McIntosh and Morse (2015) suggest that my dissertation falls under the
descriptive/ interpretive form of semi structured interviews. This is because
the aim of the research is to discover and form social and cultural
understandings of the mental health reactions and issues associated with long
term injuries. This highlights the impact of a paradigm throughout the research
process; this form of semi structured interviews is guided from the aim of
‘mapping’ in the humanist interpretivist paradigm that has been highlighted
throughout the methodology section.Bartholomew et al (2000) point out
the uniqueness of semi structured interviews due to the extent of relevant
information and understanding that you can gain from it. Once again,
highlighted through the capabilities of using open ended questions and being
able to probe by asking follow up questions in areas where the researcher needs
better understanding or just wants to know more about that specific area
(McIntosh and Morse 2015; Irvine et al 2013).
The combined use of an auto-ethnography with four semi structured
interviews, offers a unique angle when studying the mental health issues
associated with long term injuries. It is important that I critically analyse
this assumption before continuing further with the research, ensuring that it
will benefit my understanding and the outcomes of the research (Creswell 2002).
Further to this O`Bryne (2007) emphasises the need for both methods to fit with
the guidelines of the paradigmatic stance. Morgan (2007) strongly
believes that there is no problem for the use of multiple methods as long as
you are reflexive and ensure it fits. Mason (1996) argues that using mixed
methods forms methodological triangulation, which increases the reliability of
the data collected (Silverman 2013). Baker (2016) points out that paradigms are
by no means static and despite having limits, are flexible. Mixed methods have
the capability of providing a deeper, more detailed understanding of specific
themes over using just one type of research method (Creswell and Plano 2011;
Morse and Niehaus 2009). As a result of this I see the use of multiple methods
as beneficial to the study.
Being reflexive is vitally important throughout study because of the
relativist ontological and subjectivist epistemological stance that I have
taken throughout; especially through my use of auto- ethnography (Sparkes and
Smith 2014). Vannini et al (2012) define reflexivity as actions of looking back
over your own actions and thought processes. Further to this, putting yourself
in the role of the other(s) who are a part of the situation or transaction
(Smith 2008).
My experience of injury, shown in my auto-ethnography enables me to
develop an interview guide that will find the ‘rich’ data that I desire. It
further allows me to ask specific follow up questions to ensure I do not miss
out on valuable data. I have to be aware, at all times, of my impact on
shaping the answers of the participants. Ensuring that my questions and responses
do not influence the participant’s future or previous answers is vital (Finlay
and Gough 2003). I acknowledge and accept my role as the researcher in
co-constructing the data but understand the limitation of letting my own
understandings of my experience impact the validity of the findings across the
other participants; I will distinguish between the two (Tedlock 1991).
Analysis of data is arguably the most important process within research.
It inevitably governs the worth of findings (Markula and Silk 2011). Corbin and
Straus (1990) highlight the differences between ‘pure’ data, ‘transcribed’ data
and ‘interpreted’ data. ‘Pure’ data does not make sense by itself, neither do
the transcripts. To get to the ‘interpreted’ data and the end of the
process Kvale and Brinkmann (2007) describes focussing on the specific meanings
that each individual expresses throughout the interviews. Thus providing
in-depth understandings and ‘rich’ findings at the end of the research process.
To gain the ‘rich’ findings that I seek for this study I will use a
thematic analyses process.
Braun and Clarke (2006) Argue that thematic analysis should be the basis
for all qualitative analysis. It is the process of recognizing, evaluating and
recording the themes produced by the data (Boyatzis 1998). Using the themes, I
organised the understandings in a logical manner across the four interviews and
the auto- ethnography (Boyatzis 1998). It is important to understand that
themes do not necessarily have to be found multiple times across the data;
themes are information that is deemed as important to answering the research
question (Braun and Clarke 2006).
Braun and Clarke (2006) explain that thematic analysis is made up of
multiple steps: familiarization, finding codes, transferring codes into themes
and then writing the themes into the form of the discussion section of my
research. As a result of conducting interviews I had to transcribe the data,
which ensured that I familiarized myself with the data, which Riessman (1993)
suggests is important. Markula and Silk (2011) argue that audio taping and
transcribing are the preferred methods of collecting raw data from a
qualitative researcher’s perspective as a result of the ease to and accessibility
of analyzing the raw data. Sacks (1984) argues that we should not settle
for gaining data from our memory as it is not probable for us as researchers to
remember all details of an interview. By using audio- tapes you can relive,
time and time again the conversation that occurs throughout the interview
process. Allowing you to transcribe; getting every detail down to pauses,
breaths and overlaps that occur (Sacks 1992). It further enables you to study
the rich raw data extendedly in order for you to gain deep understandings of
the data (Sacks 1992).
Bird (2005) further emphasises the importance of familiarizing yourself
with the data and the benefits of transcribing interviews. Bird (2005)
describes it as a further phase of data analysis in interpreting the
qualitative data; I started to create meanings to put onto paper as a result of
this (Lapadat and Lindsay 1999). Once I transcribed the data, I had to continue
to make meanings of the experiences through coding the data that I had from the
transcripts. Coding continues to be a part of the analysis process (Miles and
Huberman 1994). As I was coding the data, I put the codes into organised and
important groups of knowledge (Tucket 2005). From the groups of codes
(knowledge) I started to create the main themes of my research. It was
difficult to do as I was not only looking at the main themes but the time
frames in which they occurred as well. I chose to break it down into three main
themes, the ‘Perceived Benefits of Sport’, the ‘Identity of an Athlete’ and
‘Masculinity’. Through the discussion and interpretation section of the
dissertation I then split these themes into before, during and after the
injury.
Silverman (2013) highlights universal guidelines that researchers should
adhere to when thinking about ethical representation of the research project.
Within this dissertation the ethical procedure is of utmost importance because
mental health can be a sensitive topic and I will be exploring people’s very
personal stories. (Markula and Silk 2011). I ensured that all participants were
aware of the purpose, methods and the intended use of the research. The main
and overall aim of ethical procedure is to ensure there is no harm caused as a
result of the research. It was important that I safeguard the participants by
ensuring confidentiality and pre assessing any risks of the research procedure.
In gaining ethical approval from the University of Bath, Silverman (2013)
suggests that I profited in two main ways. I had the experience and expertise
of my supervisor. Further to this, in gaining ethical clearance from an
institution, I increase the likelihood that the participants will be confident
in my ability as a researcher. Support from a legitimate institution could help
me to create a rapport, allowing me to gain rich data. I will be able to gain
the understanding through the rich data that I was able to get through the
rapport that I built with the participants as a result of this.
Judgement criteria defines the trustworthiness
of research (Abrams 2005). Within quantitative research there is a more fixed
set of criteria, however in qualitative work a flexible set of judgement
criteria is needed (Cohen and Crabtree 2008; Yardley 2000; Yardley 2008). The
judgement criteria that I will adhere to is to ensure that the study is not
disorderly, to ensure it is methodologically strong and understanding of my
subjectivist stance (Denzin and Lincoln 2008; Long and Godfrey 2004). I want
the findings to be credible and reliable (Cohen and Crabtree 2008); I believe
that I have done this by telling the legitimate stories of the experiences of
the interviewees throughout the study (Cooney 2011; Finlay 2006). Fossey et al
(2002) argue that this gives me the opportunity to relay authentic conclusions
on their experiences. It is important that I realise that not all readers will
agree with my conclusions but that they can see why I have draw to the
conclusions that I have (Finlay 2006). I will see the study as successful if it
does one important thing. In line with De witt and Ploeg (2006) I want my
research to be seen as meaningful. Savall et al (2008) argue that it will be
meaningful if it can add to existing understandings, I aim for the study to
further these understandings and to shed light on a confusing area.
There are some limitations that can be
associated to this study, relating to the sample size and the subjective stance
of the research. The sample size can be argued as not representative of a wider
population of amateur sport. However with the resources available to me in an
undergraduate study, the size was discussed with my supervisor. We agreed that
it was large enough to gain sufficient understanding to allow me to conclude,
and answer the research question. I sacrificed sample size to allow me to delve
deeper into each participants experiences to gain `rich` data that is high in
validity. I would argue that the subjective nature of the research is not a
limitation and has in fact, positively impacted the study. As mentioned
previously, it has allowed me to develop an interview guide and meant that I
knew, through my own experiences, when to probe and ask follow up questions.
This gave me the opportunity to gain the `rich` data that I desire to be able
to answer the research question. Further to this it allowed me to relate to the
participants, building a rapport throughout the interviews that other
researchers would not be able to build.
Sport is a powerful tool in socialisation and can hold a huge part of
individuals’ lives. I chose to study amateur competitive athletes as I found
little research into their experiences of long term injuries within literature.
I felt this to be strange, as such a large proportion of the sporting
population do not compete at an elite level. Research has led me to understand
that masculinity and athletic identity are seen to be two concepts within the
field of sports. Within my dissertation I am looking at the two concepts as
directly relating to and being a part of one another. An individual’s ideals of
masculinity directly links to and can uphold or even be the main form of one’s
athletic identity (Sparkes 1997). Therefore when I talk about the impacts of
injury on athletic identity I am also referring to the individual’s ideals of
masculinity (Coles 2008). I do not seek to hold all answers or rights, wrongs,
truth and lies about injury just to map out the experiences of psychological
impacts of long term injuries on athletes that compete in team sports.
Throughout the dissertation I have stood by the principle that any
sportsman can hold a sense of athletic identity. I argue that a long term
injury can have a negative impact on anyone who participates. Peirce indicated
that being an athlete is ‘about representation’. He eluded that it comes down
to whether you feel you are representing something of importance using the
example of ‘when I was a young kid representing my club or secondary school
would have been a big thing so I would have associated myself with being an
athlete. He went on to state that ‘Now I wouldn’t’. Darwin explained this in a
non elitist way believing that ‘it doesn’t matter at what level you are, you
could be a complete beginner but be an athlete in the sense that you are
working hard to achieve what you want’. What Peirce and Darwin have said
here further emphasises the need for this research in order to help the
majority who compete in sport at an amateur level.
The participants of the study, all explained that their lives heavily
revolved around sport before their injury. They played at varying levels but
there was no real difference in the amount of time that they spent around
sport. They all started competing at a young age through their families being
sport enthusiasts. Peirce did not remember exactly why he started to play sport
but stated that ‘I just really enjoyed being competent at something’ and that
he ‘would have played anything’. Similarly Darwin explained that he was
involved from a young age because of his parents but highlighted that his
friends were also sporty, which kept him involved. He further explained the
‘competitive nature within’ him, which he could not get rid of ‘anywhere apart
from sport’. Both of those interviewees, along with Kenny and my
auto-ethnography (see appendix 5 [1]) highlight a love and competitive nature
around sport and participation.
Before the interview process had begun I was very interested in the
reasons why the interviewees, participated in sport, were they similar reasons
to my own or did they see sport in a different light? Throughout the interviews
I was able to understand various different reasons for why the interviewees
continued to participate in sport as they got older. It was very interesting to
me as I could relate to certain individuals’ experiences; it also made me think
about other reasons that were explained and how they might have been relevant
to my own experiences.
Sergei highlighted that he did not have a love of sport but merely used
it as a means to an end. He stated ‘sport was never for me’ (appendix 4, Q8.7).
He highlighted that the reason that he participated in sport was not because he
loved it or enjoyed playing with his teammates but ‘to lose weight’ (appendix
4, Q3.3) and ‘to be accepted socially by others’ (appendix 4, Q8.7). Further
explaining that he wants to lose weight ‘so that when I’m out in public I don’t
sweat because I think people are around me’ (appendix 4, Q8.7). He, unlike the
other participants used it purely as a tool. Despite this, he still spent a
similar amount of time to the other interviewees participating and had similar levels
of impact throughout the injury process. He highlighted that he did not mind
putting his ‘time into something else’ as he ‘was being rewarded in another
way’ (appendix 4, Q3.7). I found this particularly interesting, often sport is
just seen as something to get people active or as a hobby to keep people busy,
however Sergei was using it as a tool for his own gain. I further found it
interesting because I had not thought about this in as much detail in relation
to my own participation in sport. I loved competing; I also loved the fact that
I was losing weight (see appendix 5 [2])and it kept me from putting it back on;
something that changed over the course of my injury. The experiences of Sergei
made me think about my own experiences and how I also, to an extent used sport
as a means to an end rather than for the intrinsic enjoyment I believed it to
be. Sergei potentially had a higher severity of impact to life once the
initial injury process was over, which will be discussed later on in this section.
There are a variety of different benefits highlighted from a more
intrinsic form of motivation for participating in sport. Darwin talks of
participating in sport for his enjoyment but also, to meet the ‘competitive
nature within’ him which he could not get rid of ‘anywhere apart from sport’.
But, he also explains that being involved in sport acted as a form of ‘stress
relief’ for him; therefore accepting sport as having an impact on his mental
health. I hold similar ideals of sport, which you can see in my
auto-ethnography (see appendix 5 [3]). Similarly seeing sport as an avenue to
ease the pressures of wider life. Peirce stated that sport was something that
he was ‘motivated’ by ‘everyday’, as he felt he was ‘really achieving
something’. This can clearly add to feelings of self worth and his sense of
athletic identity.
I want to now highlight further, benefits that 80% of the participants
deemed as particularly important. In particular with Kenny, his experiences of
interaction within sport and a team environment upholds Petitpas (1987) and his
research. Kenny explained his strong social benefits from participating in
sport. He emphasised that participating in sport gave him a lot more confidence
and the ability to interact with others. Kenny stated the fact that ‘he finds
it easier to make friends in a sporting environment’.
The interview from Sergei, my auto-ethnography and Darwin reaffirm
Beumeister and Leary’s (1995) claim that being a part of a sport team meets
fundamental needs of humans. I mention (appendix 5 [2][4]), as does
Sergei, ways in which participating in team sports allowed us to lose weight
and then ‘fit’ into society. Sergei further talked about sport becoming
‘something that was mine’ (appendix 4, Q3.6). In this sense I take
understanding that he met his needs of seeking popularity through participating
and competing to a certain level. Through Darwin and again my auto-ethnography
(see appendix 5 [1]) we gain understanding of the competitiveness that is only
met through participating in team sports, which highlights another need of us
as individuals, being met. An overall assumption that I have made throughout
the analysis process is that team sport provides a sense of belonging, which
upholds the research carried out by Rees et al (2015). Kenny pointed out his
love of spending so much time around sport and ‘especially the team
atmosphere’, however Sergei stated that he had not developed any ‘really
meaningful relationships’ (appendix 4, Q3.8) in his team. This promotes Martin
et al (2014) who argue that specific teams have their own environment and
individuals suit different team settings better. I take understanding from
Sergei that he did enjoy certain aspects of the team environment and argue that
if he had found a different team with a different fit, there is the potential
that he could have had more enjoyable experiences.
The experiences of a team between Sergei and the other interviewees are
interesting to understand within the process of returning to sport after their
each individual injury. Team sport meeting the needs and identifying with the
other participants can provide continued support and reassurance for the
injured participants giving them a greater sense of motivation to return from
injury and to be a part of a team again (Rees et al 2015). Kenny believed that
he worked just as hard when he was injured to recover as he did when he was
fit, ‘I went to the gym every morning to do the physio activities to get myself
back into a position to play sport again’, he further explained how he ‘missed
the team sport atmosphere so much and that it was so good to be back and to be
a part of it’. He mentioned that all of the other players on the team knew that
he had had a bad injury and that they were all really helpful and welcoming for
him to come back. Being a part of a team and valuing that helped Kenny
to come back after the injury whereas Sergei did not find himself
as heavily involved within the team atmosphere and highlighted not getting on
with some of the players and the coaches. Some of the experiences that Sergei
spoke of uphold Haslam et al (2009) in arguing that the support from the team
can help the reaction to long term injuries and the process of that. Sergei did
not feel the same belonging (Rees et al 2015) and sense of fitting in within
his team environment and ended up giving up sport all together.
Research and understanding of the athletic role by Eldridge (1983)
accentuates the interviewees “strong sense of commitment to the athletic role”.
Whether that is through the love of sport and sport meeting the competitive
needs for Darwin or Sergei intensely participating in sport to lose
weight and to meet his masculine ideals. Peirce highlighted that before his
injury, sport ‘gave him something to wake up for in the mornings’. Furthermore
Sergei demonstrates the ability of a strong athletic identity in helping with
wider aspects of life, which McPherson (1980) highlights trends of throughout his research. Sergei mentioned that he
did not mind being so heavily involved in sport because he was being
‘rewarded’(appendix 4, Q3.7) by ‘putting my time into something else’
(appendix 4, Q3.7). The ‘else’ was hanging around in ‘groups of 20’ probably
‘scaring old ladies, unintentionally obviously’ (appendix 4, Q3.7). He was
using sport as a ‘means’ to an ‘end’ but sport being the only tool that he
could use to help reach his ‘end’ of having the perfect body image to make him
feel ‘accepted socially by others’ (appendix 4, Q8.7). Despite not holding the
same intrinsic desire to participate in sport, participation is still vital to
his identity and desires.
Sergei accepted that for him; sport ‘was very egotistical’ (appendix 4,
Q3.6). Sport enabled Sergei to meet his desires of becoming popular, he lost
weight and became good at something; he found ‘something that was mine’
(appendix 4, Q3.6). Through this he felt more comfortable in himself, was
getting acknowledgement that he had lost weight and that he was actually quite
good at something. He was ‘envious of the cool kids who were always being
talked to by the fit girls’ (appendix 4, Q4.2) and he wanted that. ‘So the
moment they started coming up to me saying well done and saying oh I’ve heard
you have been going here and there and saying they are coming to watch me play
tonight, suddenly, I had achieved what everyone else had and what I wanted’
(appendix 4, Q4.2). His masculine ideals and needs were now being met.
The interview with Darwin was extremely interesting in understanding
athletic identity in relation to team sports. Darwin previously played
individual sports to county level but wanted to be a part of a team to
experience sport in a different way mentioning that it’s ‘been nice playing a
team sport’. Darwin picked up the vice- captaincy role meaning that he was a
leader in the team. He described his participation in socials within the club
as ‘being vice-captain has meant that I go there for the benefits of the team
as well as just going to be social. It’s important to me that I help put the
other, newer people in the team in social situation to help give them the
opportunity to socialise that I didn’t get in my first few years’. Before
Darwin’s injury sport was becoming an even bigger part of his life and he held
responsibility.
As you can see, not only from my auto-ethnography but from the
interviews with Peirce and Darwin as well… before their injury sporting
performance was increased through a part of ‘a group of people aspiring to the
same aims as each other yeah just a group of ambitious people… that was what I
enjoyed most about it.’ Darwin highlighted increased performance as he became
more prominent in the social scene. He trained more to meet goals that were not
only his own but his teammates as well. He stated that he liked being a part of
a team sport because he was ‘bettering yourself through athletic means and both
making some really high quality friends in the process so yeah that was sort of
where I want to be at, that level is where I want to be’. Particularly
interesting to hear it from Darwin, who had previously participated in
individual sports and highlighted these benefits to participating in a team
sport.
Being a part of sport and their team is evidently a significant part of
these individuals. This pin points the importance of participation in sport and
their team to their identity. It is clear to see that there is potential for
negative impacts through long term injuries to them when they cannot
participate. They all talk of the rigorous training that they have done from a
young age. Both Peirce and Sergei highlight the amount of exercise that they
took part in. Peirce talked of training at 7am multiple times a week, going to
the gym during his lunch and going straight to his tennis club straight after
school to train. Roughly estimating that he was participating two to six hours
of exercise every day. Sergei highlighted that he would cycle every morning,
play sport during lunch and train multiple evenings a week. There is no surprise
that these ‘athletes’ suffered from injury as a result of extensive training
from a young age as Maffuli et al (2005) previously suggested.
It is clear that these participants have held their athletic identity
strongly throughout their lives. They have pinned this strong sense of athletic
identity and ideals of masculinity against their identity more than other
activities throughout their wider life (Coakley 2009). Particularly in these
participants, sport can be seen as the richest way of achieving masculine
capital and to help meet the needs of the participant’s athletic identity (De
Visser and McDonnell 2013). This is shown through Darwin who states that the
‘competitive nature within you and you can’t get rid of competitive nature
anywhere apart from sport’ or through Peirce who stated that he just didn’t
know what to do with himself. Further stating, that he felt ‘much better’ in
himself once he re-joined a sports team after his injury. Highlighting the
importance of this research because of the ways in which it can help others who
have and will go through similar experiences.
This study concurs with Cole (2008), whose research suggests that these
ideals and the impact of them are increased through team sport. Gaining
understanding of this through Peirce who states enjoyment of being a part of a
team, whom are all ‘aspiring to be the best that they can be’. Making an
assumption from this regarding Peirce, he stayed involved socially within his
club but struggled and found it hard to stay a part of the team set up because
he could not play. I understand this through my own experiences (see appendix 5
[5]) and the interview with Peirce that we both struggled to be on the outside
of the atmosphere, seeing the other members of his team continuing to work hard
to reach their aims that were no longer his due to injury. Despite this, the
experience of Sergei rejected the usual positives of participating in team
sports (Rees et al 2015) as he stated that he did not enjoy or develop ‘any
meaningful relationships’ (appendix 4, Q3.8). However he still had very
significant and serious psychological impacts as a result of no longer being
able to participate in sporting activities because of his injury.
Here are a few quotes from across the interviews that highlight the
impact of not being able to participate in sport; “it felt weird”, “unhappy”,
“frustration”, “anger”, “anxiety”, “panic attacks”, “depressed”, “hero to zero”,
“demoralizing”, “distressed”, “emasculated” and “life became sedentary”. All of
these phrases came from four out of the five participants, only one of the
participants, Kenny accepted the injury and ‘just got on with it’ as ‘there was
nothing that I could do’. However, Kenny acknowledged that it was through a
very busy time in his life so he did not ‘really have time to think about it’.
Further to this, he also accepted that when he came back to sport after his
injury that he ‘missed it all, competing, and the team atmosphere, everything
about sport.’
It is clear that throughout the injury process feelings of isolation
were evident in all participants. The majority found isolation quite severe
whereas Kenny knew that he missed the team atmosphere but was very busy
starting a new job and moving to a new area so was given the time to think
about those feelings. Peirce highlighted that he did ‘not know what to with
himself’ throughout the injury process. Similarly I ‘lost my sense of team
feeling’, I ‘struggled to be around sport and to not play’ (see appendix 5
[6]); I stopped all together. Showing that I was isolating myself away from
wider society. Peirce started to get ‘panic attacks’ as a result of ‘not
knowing what to with himself. It led into feelings of ‘depression’ and
‘anxiety’.
Peirce and Darwin found it difficult to be around sport but not be able
to compete. Darwin stated that it ‘wasn’t the most enjoyable experience of my
life, it was a bit resented’. He found it even more difficult to be around the
team because ‘they’d talk to me about my injury’. The team were trying to
support Darwin by asking about the injury but he ‘didn’t seek social activities
nearly as much’ because he ‘didn’t want to talk about it to be honest; he then
felt like he ‘missed out quite a lot’ and it was not as ‘involving’. When he
went to training he did not have the same rapport as he used to. He highlighted
that in his new coaching role, a ‘coach never has the same comradery with the
team as the team have with each other. I understood the difficulties they faced
to being around sport whilst injured. I faced similar struggles and did not
enjoy watching from the side-lines as my team continued to compete because I
wanted to be on the court with them helping them to win and I knew that I could
if I had not been injured (see appendix 5 [7]).
Haslam et al (2008) and Haslam et al (2009) suggest that participating
in team sports enables individuals to cope with injuries and changes in the
athlete’s life. Through the understandings above, it is clear, especially from
Darwin experiences that though his team were trying to support him, they were
actually negatively impacting him. Darwin, Peirce and I felt isolated from the
team (see appendix 5 [7] [8]; Peirce suggested this because he ‘wasn’t sure
what my role was or if I belonged anymore’. They were no longer able to be a
part of the group who were ‘aspiring to the same aims as each other’, which as
Peirce spoke about left him not knowing ‘what to do with myself’ having ‘panic
attacks’, leading to ‘anxiety’ and feelings of ‘depression’. It left ‘Darwin’
feeling ‘distressed’, none were coping better with an injury as a result of
competing in a team. Sergei did not feel the support from his teammates.
He explained how being sat on the side-line meant that ‘the people who I didn’t
really get on with before, they now didn’t have to converse with me but then at
the same time I didn’t have to be in the mix with them either’ (appendix 4,
Q7.2). Haslam et al (2008) and Haslam et al (2009) argue that this is because
he did not hold a strong social identity. Despite this, both research projects
identify that a strong social identity within a team enhances an individual’s
capabilities of coping with injuries, which is clearly outlined through the
experiences of these athletes to be untrue. It does however uphold Ruddock-
Hudson (2012) and his research that highlights elite athletes isolating
themselves away from their teams through long term injuries. Despite all of these
observations, I cannot dispute the importance of the teammates in returning to
sport after the injury, from my experiences (see appendix 5 [9]), Kenny and
Peirce, life has been ‘more enjoyable’ once involved within a team again. All
three highlighting that we missed the atmosphere a huge amount and that the
feeling of it was like no other.
4.6.2.1 Masculinity
Each of the interviewees named the ideals of masculinity that Coad
(2002) and Connell (2000) express. Explaining their understanding of hegemonic
masculinity in terms of skill set, power and strength. This is a very
stereotypical understanding of masculinity as a broad subject area. Each
highlighted further ideals that they associated with being masculine (Schwarts
1999). Darwin and Kenny highlighted the need of being a leader and having a
‘powerful persona’ within a team. Peirce explained it as being ‘the boy’ on the
team and highlighted attributes of drinking and pushing yourself over limits.
Sergei highlighted being the ‘talked about thing’ (appendix 4, Q4) and being
‘popular’ (appendix 4, Q4). He highlighted having girls coming up to him and
wanting to talk to him as a result of his achievement in his sport. These
understandings help to inform the concept of ‘mosaic masculinity’. All of the
participants pointed out that they did not meet the stereotypical ideals of
hegemonic masculinity (De Visser et al 2009; De Visser and McDonnell 2012).
4.6.2.2- Mosaic Masculinity and Masculine Capital
The interviewees demonstrate an understanding that they can make up for
not having the stereotypical hegemonic masculine ideals by being able to do
other things (Anderson 2005; Connell 1995; Coles 2008). Peirce pointed out that
he has always tried to meet the ideals of masculinity by going to the gym and
working hard at training. However, he also highlighted that he is ‘a small lad’
but he ‘just did training that I didn’t need to do and pushed my body above
certain limits’ to be seen as masculine. This upholds the concept of mosaic
masculinity that is suggested by Cole (2008). Peirce rejects being able to meet
the ideals of hegemonic masculinity here because he is a `small lad` but
highlights that he was still accepted within his team and as masculine because
of the hard work that he put in to become the best that he can be (De Visser et al 2009). As a result
of ‘mosaic’ masculinity and ‘capital’ the interviewees have been able to
identify strongly with their ideals of masculinity, making it a large part of
their athletic identity.
4.6.2.3- Identity of Masculinity and its Negative Impact
Throughout the interview process it was clear that ideals of masculinity
were imbedded within the athletic identity of the interviewees (Sparkes 1997).
Darwin and Kenny less so but it was still clearly there to see. Sergei gave the
most detailed description of his experiences of masculinity within his athletic
identity however did not state that it was ideals of masculinity where as
Peirce mentioned that he felt ‘emasculated’. Multiple participants, including
myself explained that within the team environment and the club, more broadly
(Cole 2008), they struggled to go from ‘someone of importance’ to ‘nothing’
(Peirce). Peirce, Sergei and I, quoted the difficulties of going from ‘hero to
zero’ (appendix 4, Q8.2; appendix 5 [10]) as a result of the injury. You can
read in my auto- ethnography (see appendix 5 [11]) that I have struggled to
look back on ‘what I used to be’- someone who was looked up to around the club,
whereas after the injury, I was seen as a role player instead of one of the key
players in the squad. I have struggled to deal with that and it is clear
through the experiences of others that they have as well. This upholds Coles
(2008) research as they are informing us of their socialisation from within
their team and club environments in the form of masculinity and athletic
identity.
Sergei held ideals of masculinity amongst his athletic identity to a
much greater extent than the other participants. They all suffered from the
impact of injury and not being able to uphold certain masculine traits, though
Sergei ‘s motivation for participating in sport was to meet his masculine needs
of losing weight, being popular and trying to be ‘accepted socially’. Whereas
the other participants, despite holding strong masculine ideals, participated
in sport for their love of competing and being a part of the team as well.
Sergei had an understanding that participating in sport and meeting the
hegemonic masculine ideals would allow him to feel self- assured and confident
in a wider social context (Cole 2008).
As discussed, before the injury Sergei’s athletic identity was being met
through the form of masculinity as he ‘had achieved what everyone else had and
what I wanted’ (appendix 4, Q4.2). I argue that Sergei felt the largest
impact because of injury. He highlighted that he struggled to go from ‘hero to
zero’ (appendix 4, Q8.2), he had lost the one thing that had met his masculine
and identity needs. He ‘put weight on’ (appendix 4, Q8.2) again and became less
confident. His masculine ideals, no longer being met left him feeling that he
was no longer a part of any social group, which increased feelings of
subordination, which is in direct contrast to Cole (2008) who relentlessly
argues that holding masculine ideals within team sports help to reduce these
feelings.
Sergei lost further sense of masculinity as ‘being injured and leaving
the team showed me I was incapable and wasn’t necessary, I left the team and
the team still won’ (appendix 4, Q6.4) he went on to say that this just
confirmed his feelings that he ‘was not supposed to be there’ (appendix 4,
Q6.4). These statements uphold the research carried out firstly by Klein and
Heuser (2008) who mention the uniqueness of individual teams, perhaps if Sergei
played for a different team he would have felt different feelings of when he
was injured and returning from injury to his team, which is suggested to be
difficult (Bauer et al 2007 and Kim et al 2005, Jones and Wallace 2005). If he
had felt that the team needed him to be successful and reaffirmed some of his
masculine ideals perhaps he would have being able to come back from injury
strongly.
What was surprising to me as the researcher was that previously Sergei
had mentioned that he played regional level sport and had previously attended
national team trials. He was competent at his sport but I believe did not get
the right fit in the team. These experiences through injury have left Sergei
with very severe negative impacts. I gained understanding that through this and
later on in life, even up to 3 years after the injury Sergei does not feel that
he fits into society and does not feel like he is good at anything. Further to
this he highlights difficulties of trying to now meet his needs. Stating that
he struggles to exercise for multiple reasons, one of them: ‘I cannot go
swimming because I cannot take my top off’ (appendix 4, Q8.5). If Sergei did
not hold such a strong masculine, athletic identity then he may still be able
to do some activities to lose weight and fit into his ideals of societal norms.
However, as a result of it being so strong and unable to perform activities
because of this he stated that ‘life changed and very quickly, having nothing
to do meant that it became very sedentary’ (appendix 4, Q8.2).
All of the participants highlighted the amount of and the importance of
the training that they undertook before their injury. For the majority being
out injured took away a huge part of their life and on various occasions Peirce
highlighted that ‘he did not know what to do with himself’. His identity and
sense of belonging was heavily revolved around sport and he struggled with that
part of his identity changing and no longer able to be a part of whom he was.
He highlighted that before the injury had occurred that sport ‘gave him
something to wake up for’, he stated that after the injury he struggled to gain
motivation to get up and became quite lazy. He mentioned that this continued
until he re-joined a sports team 3 years later where he once again became more
motivated to get out of bed in the mornings. This highlights my assumptions
previously and work by De Visser and McDonnell (2013) that sport was the
richest part of the individuals identity.
Darwin highlighted the importance of his athletic identity early on stating
that he had developed a ‘competitive nature within you and you can’t get rid of
competitive nature anywhere apart from sport’. This became stronger when he
became the vice- captain as his athletic role was now topped up by the
importance of his social identity in helping the team have the social
experiences that he didn’t get in my first few years’ (appendix 4, Q4.6).
Darwin showed that he lost his sense of athletic identity when he was injured
because he got ‘frustrated’ with not being able to do even the easiest of
tasks, like going swimming, so he stopped everything all together, including
going to the gym to work on the exercises that the physiotherapist had given
him. He took the mind-set that if he ‘couldn’t do everything then he wouldn’t
do anything’. This is a huge hole to fill especially as Darwin highlighted that
before his injury he was training up to 4 hours every day. He explained how he
became ‘unhappy’ and ‘distressed’ because he now was looking back on a ‘better
version of himself’ and that he wasn’t doing anything to rectify that. He
normally prided himself on being someone who got on with issues and sorted them
out rather than just letting it manifest.
The study uncovered severe
impacts to the individuals as a result of their long term injuries. As
mentioned earlier the participants of the study unveiled a lot of their
feelings around their injuries and some were quite sever. Some of the emotions
and feelings that are important to highlight are: “it felt weird”, “unhappy”,
“frustration”, “anger”, “anxiety”, “panic attacks”, “depressed”, “hero to
zero”, “demoralizing”, “distressed”, “emasculated” and “life became sedentary”.
All of these individuals played at an amateur, but competitive level. They all,
throughout their interviews, highlighted the heavy extent to which they
participated in sport through training, fixtures and previously within their
schooling environments of playing sports at lunch times and before they had to
attend school. It is important to acknowledge that despite not being elite
athletes all of the individuals held a strong sense of athletic identity.
It is important to highlight
that there were both intrinsic and extrinsic forms of motivation for the
individual’s engagement in sport but all felt that it was an important part of
their athletic identity and as an overarching entity, their identity of who
they are. Whether their motivation was for intrinsic or extrinsic reasons, the
impact of the long term injury on their mental health was still severe. Kenny
was a bit of an anomaly regarding his experiences of the process of the injury
as the understanding I gained from his interview, although he was upset that he
could not compete in sport for a while. He accepted it and was able to focus on
the physiotherapist work he was given and the other aspects of his life that
were going on at the time such as starting a new placement job from university
and moving to a new area.
As I have shown in the first
part of this chapter, there were some poignant expressions of feelings across
the interview process, which highlights the overall trend of negative impacts
on mental health to an extreme extent. Particularly highlighted through Sergei,
who alluded to his thoughts of not being socially accepted because of his body
image and not seen as being successful at anything. He highlighted that even
3-5 years on, of not competing, he has not found ‘happiness’ in his life yet.
All stemming from his now, inability to participate in sport and gaining his
own understanding that he was never very good at the one thing that made him
feel that he had finally found something to allow him to fit in and become
popular. I gained this understanding partly through this statement: ‘being
injured and leaving the team showed me I was incapable and wasn’t necessary, I
left the team and the team still won’ (appendix 4, Q6.4).
It was further evident through
the experiences of Peirce who expressed a lot of negative impacts throughout
the interview. The most staggering that I want to revisit and highlight here is
how he expressed that sport ‘motivated him to wake up in the mornings’. When he
was injured and not a part of a team he highlighted that he struggled to wake
up in the mornings and that this negatively impacted his life until he joined a
sports team again in his final year of university two years on. This highlights
not only an intense impact on his life but highlights how it impacted him for a
significant period of time. Finally it is important to highlight the rejection
of so much literature across this study that emphasises the importance of a
team throughout the experiences of injuries or life changes Haslam et al (2008)
and Haslam et al (2009). Instead it upholds the research carried out by
Ruddock- Hudson (2012) who explains that within his study of elite sportsmen,
individuals distanced themselves from their team setting throughout the course
of their injury. However the study did highlight the importance of a team
atmosphere in returning to sport after a long term injury, this was especially
highlighted through Kenny’s account of his injury process.
I believe that the study will be highly useful in bridging the gap
in the literature for men that are suffering with mental health issues as a
result of a long term injury within team sport environments. It enables others
to understand their experiences in relation to others without specifically
speaking to close friends and family which could be largely beneficial
especially to the male population who are seen to not use the support systems
(Addis and Mahalik 2003). Further to this, the research might encourage other
male athletes who participate at an amateur, competitive level to seek out help
and be confident in themselves still whilst doing it. I hope it can shed light
on the understanding of one’s own ideals of masculinity and athletic identity
more broadly in relation to its role in impacting the negative impacts of long
term injuries.
The study uncovered some rich data and I believe that I was able
to tell the story of the individuals experiences of long term injuries well as
a result of this. I argue that despite my subjective involvement within the
study I managed to allow the readers to fully understand the experiences of the
individuals in a lone capacity. But I further believe that I successfully
managed to compare and contrast the experiences of not only the individuals but
myself through the use of my auto-ethnography as well. I stand by my previous
statement that my use of an auto-ethnography along with the four interviews
offers the research a unique angle; I believe that it has benefited the study
in multiple ways. It enabled me to ask the important questions at the interview
stage to gain the ‘rich’ data that I desired. But it also gave an extended
account of the feelings and experiences that I went through. This was important
in upholding not only the literature but some of the experiences that the
individuals had as well. It demonstrated the level of detail that they were
exposing their experiences to. This further demonstrates the validity and
reliability of the overall study.
There were however limitations to the research. As I have just
stated, I argue that the auto-ethnography was a benefit to the study. It had
potential to persuade the interviews and findings however through my reflexive
stance I strongly argue that it did not. A further limitation of the study
could be shown in only four interviews being conducted. The amount of amateur
athletes even within the institution where I conducted the study reaches the
thousands. The study could be seen to be more representative if it were to have
a larger sample size. Despite this, as eluded to in the methodology section,
after discussion with the supervisor and assessing the resources that I had,
four semi- structured interviews was deemed to develop enough data and
understanding to successfully answer the research question.
I would love to follow this study on in two different routes, the
first be through researching female athletes who participate in team sports.
This interests me because of the difference in hegemonic masculinity and how
much the impact of that would change the findings through male and female
sport. As we can see through this study, masculinity held a large proportion of
the athletic identity for Sergei, Perice and I. Our strong sense of masculinity
within our athletic identity was huge in increasing the negative impacts as a
result of our injuries.
The second route that interests me is researching male athletes
who compete within individual sports. As I have detailed, the individuals
that I interviewed highlighted their enjoyment of being around team sports
before the injury and the majority highlighted that being a part of a team
after the injury helped them to get back into the sport and back to performing.
Despite the fact that being a part of a team did not help them over the course
of the injury itself it was, in most cases vital in returning from injury. I am
eager to understand the experiences of athletes from individual sports, still
at an amateur level. To understand how they experience their return from
injury. Do they seek the support from other individuals or are they able to go
back to their sport and training without the same support systems.
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