List of Acronyms

BASW – The British Association of Social Workers

CAMHS – Children and Adolescents Mental Health Services

CBT – Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

ECHR – European Court of Human Rights

ILR – Indefinite Leave to Remain

LA – Local Authority

LAC – Looked After Children

SCIE- Social Care Institute of Excellence

UASC – Unaccompanied Asylum-Seeking Children

UKBA – United Kingdom Border Agency

UN – United Nations

UNCRC – United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

UNHCR – United Nations High Commission for Refugees

PTSD- Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

HRA- Human Rights Act

Abstract

The literature review aims to gather the experiences of unaccompanied minors seeking asylum in the UK. The review is a secondary research and data was gathered from different sources such as peer reviewed journals, books, grey materials from internet search, magazines and government publications. This is a narrative approach therefore qualitative than quantitative research methodology will be used in this review. It will first examine the reasons for migration such as war, persecution and political upheaval. It will then examine research on the assessment processes such as the asylum processes and the difficulty of going through the process, including age assessment and psychological assessment. Most unaccompanied minors have suffered psychological distress because of loss and trauma therefore there is a greater need for psychological assessment to ensure they receive the right support. The literature review will explore the intervention process such as foster placement and mental health intervention. Unaccompanied minors find themselves in unfamiliar environments without a responsible adult therefore accommodation arrangements will need to be put in place for them. The review will incorporate ways of integrating them into the society, including legislation and policy underpinning the unaccompanied minors in the UK. The final section of this literature review will explore the implications of social work practice on the experiences of unaccompanied minors. It will conclude by evaluating the overall experiences of unaccompanied minors and look out for any gaps in the legislation.

Table of Contents

Definition of Terms

The term unaccompanied minors shall be used throughout this dissertation. Kohli (2007) recognised that, the definition of unaccompanied minor is often unclear as described within the international conventions.

Unaccompanied minor

The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR, 1994) stated that unaccompanied minors are those children who are separated from their parents and do not have an adult relative or any guardian responsible for them. McVeigh (2016) defined an unaccompanied minor as a child who is under the age of 18 years old who leaves his/ her own country with no relative or guardian.

Child

The Children Act (1989) defined a child as any individual who is below the age of 18 years old. The United Nations High Commission of Refugees (UNHCR) (1951) supported that, a child is simply any person below the age of 18 years old.

Asylum seeker

The Refugee Law and Policy (2016) defined asylum as a term that is used to refer to the protection offered to individuals who are fleeing persecution in their country of origin. As a general rule, individuals/ asylum seekers may apply for protection only after entering the country in which they are seeking asylum. The Refugee Law and Policy (2016) went on to state that, asylum seekers who satisfy the application criteria will then receive a refugee status. Applicants who do not meet the application criteria and have not been granted refugee status may still be granted leave to remain in the UK on humanitarian or other reasons (Refugee Law and Policy, 2016). This can only be fulfilled if the Home Office establishes that there is a genuine risk if they are returned to their own countries. The Refugee law and policy (2016) stated that, the UK provides a restriction on refugee settlement programs and only selected refugees are given an access to come and settle in the UK without going through the asylum process, for instance, a program for vulnerable Syrian refugees. The same statement was supported by Ridley (2015) who stated that Britain welcomed 20, 000 Syrian refugees and resettled them under the new programme introduced by David Cameron called the Vulnerable Persons Integration (VPR) scheme.

Refugee

The UN High Commission for Refugees, UNHCR (1951) defined a refugee as an individual who flees persecution in his/her country. It went on to state that, refugees should be protected by the international laws and must not be returned to their own countries if their lives are considered to be at greater risk of persecution.

Migrant

The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR, 1951) noted that the terms ‘migrants’ and ‘refugees’ are often confused and to avoid such confusion they should be clearly defined and understood. The UNHCR (1951) clearly states that, unlike a refugee who moves mainly because of a direct threat of persecution or death, a migrant is an individual who chooses to move primarily to improve his life, for instance, employment opportunities, education, family reunion or other factors.

Emigrate

The oxford Dictionary (2017) defined the term ‘emigrate’ as when an individual leaves his/ her country of permanent residence and settles permanently in another country.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Mind (2013) and Royal College of Psychiatrists (2017) defined PTSD as any mental health problems resulting from a traumatic experience. For instance, when someone witnesses or was involved in a distressing incident, he/ she may experience distress, anger, confusion or upset afterwards. However, with PTSD, the feelings of distress may not present themselves straightaway, but as time goes on, they may develop into emotional distress and physical problems, such as insomnia and feeling easily upset (Mind, 2013).

Chapter 1- Background to the study

Social work practice with unaccompanied minors presents social workers with a new challenge (Simmonds, 2007). Therefore, this dissertation will look at how the experiences of unaccompanied minors could be improved in the UK through interventions, assessments and integration. In recent years, there has been an influx of unaccompanied minors coming into the UK to seek asylum with numbers reaching up to 3500 asylum applications in 2001 compared to 2700 in 2000 (Thomas, 2003). Gentleman (2013) affirmed an increase in the number of children embarking on a journey to start a new life in the United Kingdom.

Many migrants seeking asylum are of various ages and backgrounds and unaccompanied minors who arrive in the UK comes with very high social care needs. Britain has seen an increase of unaccompanied minors by the arrival of Syrian refugees since the start of their conflict in Syria (McClenaghan and Wright, 2015). Devlin (2016) quoted the home office figures stating that, there were about 2, 654 unaccompanied minors who sought asylum in the UK, which is an increase of 50% compared to year 2015. Under the Children Act (1989),it is the Local Authority’s responsibilities to ensure that these unaccompanied minors are cared for within their local area (Devlin, 2016). For some Local Authorities such as Kent, this has been a huge challenge as they had to accommodate about 932 minors, the largest number among all other Local Authorities in the UK (Devlin, 2016).

Reintegration into the society is one of the UN High Commission for Refugees’ (UNHCR) responsibilities for supporting these unaccompanied minors into rebuild their lives (UNHCR, 2016). However, when seeking to support the minors to rebuild their lives, there is a need to understand their lived experiences, individual concerns and their rights (Malmsten, 2014). Lawrence et al (2015) stated that, the only way to gain such an understanding depends on the availability of research and how it is conducted. Research should be based on allowing the unaccompanied minors to express freely their lived experiences, concerns, needs and hopes and treating them with respect and dignity (Lawrence et al, 2015). In contrast, there is hesitation from unaccompanied minors to disclose too much information about their experiences, especially to authorities (Kohli, 2006; Chase, 2013; Raghallaigh, 2013)

The position of unaccompanied minors separated from their families, country, culture and religion is not the same as the challenges facing professionals working with UK children. In addition, there is the issue of traumatic experiences of many unaccompanied minors who have faced war, conflict or persecution (Simmonds, 2007). Lastly, there is the unresolved issue of their identity as asylum seekers. Therefore, to consider these issues about this service user group, the dissertation shall look at the assessment process, social work intervention and integration into the society.

Mitchell (2007) established the three common aspects in the lives of unaccompanied minors: they are separated from their parents or care giver, they find themselves in a foreign country and they are subject to immigration control. It is for these reasons that these unaccompanied minors become the Local Authority’s responsibility. Therefore there is a need for assessments to be undertaken, because a range of needs is likely to arise. Mitchell (2007) recognised a research study which indicated that many Local Authorities did not offer 16 and 17 years old unaccompanied minors’ full needs assessment. Mitchell (2007) went on to state that about three quarters of 54 local authorities were not assessing unaccompanied minors’ needs as recently introduced by the National Statutory Guidance on Assessment. The two authors concluded that the assessments either were ineffective or may not have taken place or fully implemented to meet the unaccompanied minors’ needs.

Townsend (2016) noted the new emerging developments in connection with the disappearance of unaccompanied minors when they reach the UK. The authorities are suspicious that the unaccompanied minors were being the targets of traffickers or simply they feared deportations. In most cases, unaccompanied minors arrive with no documentation to prove their age, authorities usually question their ages or are disbelieved and incorrectly classed as adults (Simmonds and Merredow, 2010). Therefore, the issue of age assessments remains a controversial issue and the Local Authorities regard it as immoral and unprincipled (Right to Remain, 2015; BASW, 2016). Similarly, Sharman (2016) quoted Eva Singer, Head of Asylum at the Danish Refugee Council stating, “There are many of these young people who don’t know precisely how old they are because it is not something that is registered in their home countries in the same way as it is in Denmark.”Therefore, it is possible to make a wrong prediction of someone’s age based on an age assessment criteria. However, Sharman (2016) recognised that, asylum seekers who were age tested were found to be older than they claimed to be.

The dissertation will also consider the experiences of unaccompanied minors in the foster placements as part of integration in the UK. Raghallaigh and Sirriyeh (2015) noted that the experiences of unaccompanied minors in foster placements differ because some were placed in cross cultural placements and some with foster carers from the same country of origin or with the same religious background. Hek (2007) stated that there are a number of ways in which foster placements can be used to support unaccompanied minors. It is also important to note that, their experiences in foster placements may be negative if they feel isolated, or uncared for, if they are treated differently and excluded from their carer’s social circle. Therefore, it is the Local Authority’s responsibilities to educate the foster carer by providing information and training on how to respond to the needs of unaccompanied minors in their care, thereby reducing such negativities (Hek, 2007).

Kohli (2007) highlighted that, the UK has been integrating unaccompanied minors into the society from the 20^th century who were escaping poverty and persecutions from authorities or family members. This service user group will then embark on a journey alone to a foreign land, with a foreign culture, foreign language and everything they know. For that reason, the Children Act (1989) and the Children (Leaving Care) (2000) demands the Local Authority to protect the welfare of such children. Under this legislation, the protection and welfare of unaccompanied minors is essential and the Local Authority should enable this as they have a legal duty to every child despite their immigration status. According to the Save the Children (2017), each child’s experience is different during and when unaccompanied minors arrive in the United Kingdom to resettle.

The review shall incorporate a theoretical perspective on the experiences of unaccompanied minors. A theory is defined as a way of making sense of a particular situation and it helps the social workers to identify any patterns in certain situations (Howe, 2009). This dissertation will explore the ecological perspective to explore unaccompanied minors’ experiences and reasons for migration.

Finally, the research of unaccompanied minors and refugees itself is a challenging area of social work practice which is open to criticism (Travis, 2017). This is because it puts unexpected financial pressure on Local Authorities and Taxpayers and the government will struggle to meet the unaccompanied minors’ actual costs (Tickle, 2016).Most of the time, refugees, including unaccompanied minors are stigmatised and receive bad publicity as they are perceived as scroungers who takes advantage of UK’s benefits system (Kirklees Council, 2007). However, this is not true as most of them flee their countries not deliberately, but escaping persecution and in search of refuge and help. Another primary reason for studying this topic is the researcher’s experience of working with unaccompanied minors whilst on placement. The researcher had an opportunity of working with one of the most vulnerable children and learning about their experiences in hostel accommodation under Local Authority.

There is evidence suggesting that this service user group is not receiving the appropriate support or benefits entitled to them. Gentleman (2013), recognised them as the most vulnerable children in the Britain, but despite that Britain was still not able to fully look after them properly. The dissertation will conclude by analysing the dissertation findings and discussion as well as recommendations for future practice.

1.1 – Research Question

“What are the experiences of unaccompanied minors seeking asylum in the United Kingdom”?

2. – Objectives

1. To understand the assessment process of unaccompanied asylum seeking children in the U.K.
2. To explore the intervention processes social workers put in place for this service user’s group.
3. To understand their integration, reintegration and assimilation in the society.

Chapter 2- Methodology

This is a narrative literature review which has been undertaken to investigate the experiences of unaccompanied minors seeking asylum in the UK. The main reason for undertaking a literature review is to gather knowledge on what is already known in relation to the research topic (Bryman, 2012). It also helps the researcher learn from other researchers and look out for any gaps in their research (Bryman, 2012). The results and findings were carefully selected from reliable databases and published sources and were then summarised. This literature review was carried out using electronic academic databases such as the Sage Hub, Psycho Info and Community Care Inform Children and some reliable social care websites such as Social Care Institute of Excellence (SCIE), National health Services (NHS), Home Office and Community Care website. Peer review journal articles were used as they are reliable sources which have been fully critiqued before being published. The key policy websites were also used such as the Department of Health, Department of Education and the general internet search such as Google Search for grey materials, Google Scholar, library journals and e-books. Literature was also sourced from the University Library and from a researcher in the field who provided a copy of his textbook (Working with Unaccompanied asylum seeking children: Issues for policy and practice). A wide range of materials were sourced out to balance and used to critically analyse data.

Literature reviews are comprehensive studies of ‘ideas, issues, approaches and research findings’ on the topic under research (Kitely and Stogdon, 2014, p.5.).

The following example was used as the search criteria for key terms, using Commas, AND, OR and Brackets. For example, “unaccompanied minors AND separated children experiences in the UK”; “child refugees OR unaccompanied children”; (the lived experiences of unaccompanied asylum seeking children in the UK). The key word used within the literature review is; unaccompanied minors, however other terms such as ‘unaccompanied children’, ’separated children’, ‘asylum seekers’, refugee’, migrant’, experiences’, and ‘challenges’ were combined in order to broaden the search criteria.

Literature from the UK and Europe were used in this dissertation and they were all in English. The reason for using literature from other European countries was to compare the experiences of unaccompanied minors in other parts of Europe and how they were being supported. Some of the grey literature was gathered from unreliable internet source; however any information can put information on the internet which makes it an unreliable source of evidence. Journals articles used were generally Sage journals and refugee and migration books for unaccompanied minors. Most of the literature used in this dissertation are 10 years old and below because this is a hot topic with current issues still being debated in Parliament. However, sources over 10 years old were used in order to understand the context of the experiences of unaccompanied minors and underpinning legislation.

Berge (2009) defined methodology as a research strategy which identifies how research is to be undertaken, and this can be through qualitative or quantitative research. Qualitative methodology has been adopted in this research because the topic seeks to explore the experiences, events and behaviours of unaccompanied minors (Ahsan, 2017).  Bryman (2012) established that qualitative research aims to capture the subjective meaning of the stories or narratives from unaccompanied minors’ perspective, for example, what it means for the minors to experience forced migration. The experiences of each minor are child- specific depending on their background, resilience, age, experiences and reasons for migration (Raghallaigh and Gilligan, 2010).

This is a secondary research dissertation, however when conducting primary research, a narrative approach would be appropriate using interviews. According to Aveyard (2010) children will freely tell their experiences and will choose which information they want to share for confidential reasons. Interviews would be conducted using semi structured and open ended questions (Jamshed, 2014). Qualitative research methodology is regarded the most suitable when investigating the latest or prominent issues, such as the experiences of unaccompanied minors (Jamshed, 2014). The most common types of qualitative research methods that can be used are interviews or observations (Gill et al, 2008).

The researcher would need to consider the ethical issues as both qualitative and quantitative methodologies should respect ethical issues when researching the experiences of unaccompanied minors (Holloway and Wheeler, 2010). The unaccompanied minors would have to be treated with respect by maintaining their dignity regardless of age or background. The researcher would need to consider the informed consent and confidentiality even though it might be restricted when the minors are at risk of harm (Butler, 2002). Somekh and Lewin (2005)  and Silverman (2010) defined confidentiality as a concept of allowing individuals to freely express themselves in confidence and having the rights to deny any publication of material considered as harmful to them (Shaw, 2008).

To protect unaccompanied minors during interviews, the researcher may give a brief explanation of the objectives of the study (Silverman, 2010; Flick, 2013). The researcher would need to make the unaccompanied minors’ safety a priority during participation (Silverman, 2010). Data gathered would be stored in a secure locked storage away from unauthorised persons (Shaw, 2008). Discrimination as one of the core value of social work would need to be challenged during participation, and it can be on the basis of age, gender, race and social background (BASW, 2017).

Chapter 3- Literature Review: What are the experiences of unaccompanied asylum seeking children in the U.K.

3.1.1 Assessment

Mitchell (2007) noted three elements that are common in the lives of unaccompanied minors, that is, they are separated from their care giver, alienated from their countries of origin and are under immigration controls. Therefore a range of personal needs are most likely to emerge from these exceptional circumstances. It is for these reasons that unaccompanied minors become the responsibilities of Local Authorities.  The Local Authority will then carry out an ongoing assessment of need process to understand the unaccompanied minors’ vulnerabilities, risks and protective factors resulting from their experiences (Mitchell, 2007; Children Legal Centre, 2017). Mitchell (2007) identified what is involved in the assessment process and this includes identifying, gathering, analysing and understanding information presented. At every stage of the process, the social worker is expected to use the analytical and communication skills to determine their capabilities of making sense of the information gathered (Mitchell, 2007). The same statement was supported by Coulshed and Orme (2006) who affirmed that these skills are regarded as ‘core skills’ of communication, such as observation, listening, reflection and evaluation. These skills are integral to the assessment of unaccompanied minors. They stated that listening, being non judgemental and having a sense of humour is regarded as good practice in assessing unaccompanied minors and young people. These are key practices which affects how unaccompanied minors respond in the assessment process (Mitchell, 2007).

Mitchell (2007) undertook an assessment practice study in three local authorities over 18 months. She found that there were inconsistencies in terms of assessing the needs of unaccompanied minors and young people. The following were some of the inconsistencies noted;

• Assessors had a limited understanding of the Children act 1989 and its requirements.
• Refugees were either not fully funded or there was lack of funding to refugees in general.
• Hostility towards refugees exhibited by the public.
• Social workers’ lack of good assessment skills.

Coulshed and Orme (2006) and Mitchell (2007) supported each other that; it took certain skills, knowledge of social work values and good practical knowledge to carry out robust and holistic assessments. Access to training, reflection, education and supervision will indeed improve the assessment of need for all service user groups and that includes unaccompanied minors (Coulshed and Orme, 2006). Mitchell (2007) identified that during the assessment process with unaccompanied minors, barriers to communication existed because of restricted availability of skilled interpreters. The SCIE (2015) suggested that, to ensure effective communication practitioners needs to build good working relationships with interpreting agency. Interpreters should understand the situation of unaccompanied minors by debriefing them in order to clarify any issues and develop better understanding of the unaccompanied minors’ needs (SCIE, 2015). It is important to note that, interpreters may have training needs in terms of understanding specific challenges experienced by unaccompanied minor that may implicate their communication, for example, trauma, loss, persecution, or psychological issues (Raval, 2006).

3.1.2 Asylum process

Recent studies clearly suggest that asylum process can have a significant impact on unaccompanied minors’ coping strategies due to uncertainties surrounding the final outcome from the Home office (Wade, 2011; Faze et al, 2012). The majority of unaccompanied minors may feel anxious and not in control of their lives and they may worry that their claim would be rejected and consequently face deportations (Wade, 2011). Bell (2005) recognised the psychological issues in unaccompanied minors seeking asylum as a challenge because of uncertainties surrounding their immigration process and not being in control of their lives. Endersby (2006) undertook a qualitative study emphasising on unresolved immigration processes in unaccompanied minors influencing their daily lives and future aspirations. Despite these uncertainties unaccompanied minors would usually demonstrate significant resilience in the face of challenges (Kovacev and Shute, 2004).

If an unaccompanied minor is applying for asylum under the care of the Local Authority, screening and social work assessment is usually completed and arrangements are then made to accommodate the child under section 20 of the Children Act 1989. The Local Authority will then take on the parental responsibility of the unaccompanied minor (Crawley, 2004). Tasks are usually delegated to a responsible adult working daily with the unaccompanied minor, such as a foster carer or keyworker, ensuring the unaccompanied minor has access to legal advice and exercise their rights (Home Office, 2016; The Young Lives Foundation, 2017). The solicitor will then meet with the unaccompanied minor to take a statement, outlining the grounds on which they are claiming asylum and then present the case to the local immigration office. The unaccompanied minor, solicitor, interpreter, main carer, home office official and their interpreter usually attends this meeting. The meeting will result in whether the child will be granted stay, if not they have a limited time to appeal the Home office decision (Home Office, 2016).

The following is the possible outcome from the meeting;

• Granted asylum- the unaccompanied minor can stay up to 5 years and the stay can then be reviewed.
• Humanitarian protection- the unaccompanied minor can stay for 5 years and it is not usually reviewed in unaccompanied minors.
• Discretionary leave to remain- the home office will have assessed that the unaccompanied minor will be at risk of persecution if returned home, therefore they can either stay for 3 years or until they are 17 and half years old.
• Asylum claim refused- face deportation or to be sent back to their countries of origin.

(Department of Education, 2016)

3.1.3 Age assessment

Social workers often find themselves faced with a new challenge when working with unaccompanied minors (Simmonds, 2007). The challenges faced by social workers working with unaccompanied minors do not replicate the issues faced by unaccompanied minors (Simmonds, 20007). The social workers take on a huge responsibility of working with unaccompanied minors and normally whose ages are disputed. Kohli (2007) noted that unaccompanied minors’ stories were very complicated and usually disbelieved by authorities. The unaccompanied minors’ stories are usually not listened to or distorted by authorities because they are regarded as the same stories usually narrated by others about their reasons for migration (Simmonds, 2007). Therefore, authorities find it as a challenge to believe the validity of their narratives. Ages are usually disputed and often they are not told truthfully (Simmonds, 2007). Kohli (2007) highlighted some of the reasons why unaccompanied minors are reluctant to tell their stories and the social workers should be ready to deal with these complex ‘silence’. Chase (2010) and Ishola (2012) explored this ‘silence’ as a coping mechanism and a natural reaction when unaccompanied minors found themselves in unfamiliar situations and environments. Ishola (2012) suggested that practitioners should be able to identify the child’s additional needs and not just being competent in assessing them. Practitioners should identify any mental or physical issues that may have emerged on their journey to the UK.

Those whose ages are disputed by the UK authorities were normally not given the benefit of a doubt and normally they are treated as an adult. Therefore, they lose their credibility to their asylum claim (Giner, 2007; Kvittingen, 2010). As recognised by Cemlyn and Nye (2012) age assessment is extremely controversial and often inaccurate. Few years ago, the immigration authorities relied solely on medical evidence, but medical professionals concluded that determining the age of unaccompanied minors through x-rays was unreliable and should not be relied upon especially for older teenagers (Cemlyn and Nye, 2012). Nonetheless, dental analysis is still offered alongside the Merton age assessment (Cemlyn and Nye, 2012).Crawley (2007) and Watters (2008) highlighted the importance of realising that, in some cultures and ethnicities age is not celebrated, registered or even known. Therefore most children coming from such background, especially war torn countries, may not even know their true date of births (Watters, 2008).

3.1.4 Psychological assessment

Some experiences of traumatic events, including war, violence, persecution, neglect and abuse can potentially contribute to psychological, emotional and behavioural changes that can potentially affect learning and performance  (Arnot and Candappa, 2010; Wilson et al, 2011). Beers and De Bellis (2002) established that there is a relationship between childhood traumatic events and damaged memory and disturbed abstract thinking. The same conditions were also found to be linked with neglected children who showed poor learning skills than children who were not neglected (De Bellis et al, 2009). However, there is no research supporting these relationships with unaccompanied minors, but they would be expected to apply to any child. Saigh et al (2006) and Yasik et al (2007) and Sanchez- Cao (2012) suggested that the relationship between traumatic events and poor psychological functioning is particularly associated with unaccompanied minors with Post Traumatic stress Disorder symptoms. This same statement was supported by Ehntholt et al (2005) who affirmed that Post Traumatic Stress Disorder was usually associated with traumatised children and unaccompanied minors. DeHaene (2007) further explored that depression and anxiety disorders were usually found particularly in refugee children including unaccompanied. Bronstein and Montgomery (2011) noted that the prevalence of anxiety levels in unaccompanied minors ranged from 33% to 50%, depression from 3% to 30% and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder from 19% to 54%, whereas in the general population the number were found to be 2% to 9%. Henley and Robinson (2011) established that Post Traumatic Stress Disorder can persist for up to 12 years or into adulthood after integration, hence the need for thorough psychological assessment.

The British Psychological Society (2017) recognised the importance of multidisciplinary working to holistically support unaccompanied minors. It further stated that, assessment of unaccompanied minors’ overall wellbeing, including psychological assessment of vulnerability and the impact of minors’ experiences should not be ignored. Such assessment should be balanced according to gender and culture; professional interpreters should be used if minors do not speak English. The British Psychological Society (2017) stated that, psychological assessment should incorporate the minors’ socioeconomic background and other factors such as their experiences on the journey, which may impact their overall wellbeing. Psychological assessments can contribute to a swift response from professionals across disciplines to ensure that the minors access healthcare and support from Local authorities and receive adequate support in their education (British Psychological Society (2017).

Undertaking a psychological evaluation on unaccompanied minors seems to go against the principles of the Human Rights Act 1998 and the values of social work, for example, Anti-Discriminatory Practice and Anti-Oppressive Practice. Parrott (2014) defined anti discriminatory practice as a practice which helps to reduce or which challenges discrimination and oppression because of gender, race, age or disability. The Human Rights Act (1998) demands that everyone should be treated the same with fairness, dignity and respect. The Article (30 of the Act prohibits torture, degrading or inhumane treatment regardless of background. It further states that this is an absolute right, in that, torturing someone can never be justified (HRA, 1998). Any treatment that causes intense physical or psychological suffering on a person is regarded as inhumane treatment and any treatment which humiliates or devalues an individual beyond what is expected is regarded as degrading treatment (HRA, 1998).

The Community Care (2012) noted that, most unaccompanied minors from Afghanistan showed symptoms associated with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, however this could be managed by on- going support and ensuring unaccompanied minors have a stable accommodation. This issue of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder was also highlighted by Heaphy (2007) who recognised that unaccompanied minors were most likely to experience psychological problems, particularly PTSD. He concluded by stating that unaccompanied minors were at risk of experiencing mental health problems than minors accompanied by their families.

3.2.1 Intervention Process- Foster placements

It is important to understand the legal meaning of ‘private foster care’ according to section 66 of the Children Act (1989). It is defined as, ‘an arrangement that is made privately, without the involvement of the Local Authority, for the care of a child under the age of 16 (under 18 if disabled), by someone other than a parent or close relative and as an arrangement that endures beyond 28 days” (Children Act, 1989). If a child is in the care of anyone who is not a full blood or half- blood relative and it extends beyond 28 days then it is regarded as a private foster care by legal definition (Nandy et al, 2011). Although these arrangements are made without Local Authority involvements, foster carers have a duty to notify the Local Authority of such arrangements and they will undertake a needs assessment to monitor the situation (Shaw et al, 2010). Contrary, public foster care is when a child is assessed first then placed with a foster carer by Local Authority, either through a care order or parental agreement (Connolly, 2014).

A number of unaccompanied minors were found to be living in private foster placements arrangements in the UK, including trafficked children and those sent by parents to live with family or friends as part of adaptation and survival (Crawley, 2006; Ince, 2009; Roby, 2011; Shaw et al, 2010). Since this is a private arrangement, accessing these minors can be quite ma challenge as notifying the Local Authority is not mandatory and there exist a general fear of social workers intruding in their private lives (Connolly, 2014).  Brownlees and Finch (2010) recognised that Local Authorities are reluctant to place more minors in private foster care placement as it could have detrimental implications on their budgets. Statistics shows that there was only 1, 780 minors in private foster placements in March 2012 (DfE, 2012). However, the official figures were indicated in the British Association for Adoption and Fostering (BAAF), showing numbers between 15,000- 20,000 (Philpot, 2010).

Connolly (2014) addressed the challenges faced by children and families social workers when assessing private foster placements for unaccompanied minors. These include the absence of documentation and addressing the minors’ relationship with the future foster carer. There are various risks and challenges faced by unaccompanied minors according to Connolly (2014).  These ranges from low self- esteem, abandonment, poor housing and overcrowding, social isolation, physical and emotional neglect (Brownlees and Finch, 2010; Kearney, 2007).

3.2.2 Mental Health intervention

Conflict in many parts of the world had led to an increase in unaccompanied minors (Majumder, 2014). An increase in the number of unaccompanied minors experiencing psychological distress has meant the development of services for them (Majumder, 2014). The services in place should be appropriate and tailor made to meet their specific requirements. In child mental health, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy or ‘talking therapy’ remains the predominant method of psychological treatment, alongside the use of medication though not fully evaluated to be effective (Lusting et al, 2004). Most unaccompanied minors reported that they found engaging with the ‘talking therapy’ more difficult and opt to medication treatment as this might be due to communication barrier (Lusting et al, 2004).

While talking therapy is a well-established framework which is a widely used system, it is not globally used (Lusting et al, 2004). Talking therapy can also be a challenge on unaccompanied minors due to language limitation, even when using interpreters. Therefore, psychiatrist will defer the treatment until the unaccompanied minors’ language and communication has improved, and this should be weighed against the risks (Huemer and Vostanis, 2010). Majumder et al (2014) in their study noted the importance of clarity in terms of the treatment being received by the unaccompanied minors as some participants lacked clarity in terms of their treatment. This raises a concern around informed consent as unaccompanied minors should be able to understand their treatment even if it means using an interpreter (Majumder, 2014).

3.3.1 Integration into the society – Stability

Derluyn and Broekaert (2007) noted that, unaccompanied minors trying to fit in and find a role within a new society can be a huge challenge for them, especially when they are not familiar with the language, cultures, behaviours and the role of Local Authority.

Berrie and Mendez (2011) emphasised on the importance of stability after migration, as a fundamental requirement for unaccompanied minors. They went on to state the importance of ensuring unaccompanied minors are placed in supportive accommodation to minimise stress levels and mental challenges. Stein (2005) noted that stability helps unaccompanied minors to develop coping strategies, it provides unaccompanied minors with emotional warmth towards the care giver (Bhugra& Becker, 2005) and it also provides continuity in the unaccompanied minors’ lives (Jackson & Thomas, 2001).

Stability is the first step in the lives of unaccompanied minors especially if they are in stable placements which support them to succeed in their education, make transition from care to adulthood and be in employment (Stein, 2005). Continuity will be part of their lives within their education, friendships and society (Marsh & Peel, 1999). As noted by Eide (2000) in his study on unaccompanied minors in Norway, he stated that building and maintaining social relationships is crucial to the development of unaccompanied minors, particularly with people around them.

3.3.2 Support networks

Boswell (2001) described support networks as central in resettling unaccompanied minors and refugees as it provides them with practical ad emotional support. Kidan (2001) and Stanley (2001) stated that building strong networks is essential as it promotes a sense of belonging and identity, builds self- esteem and confidence in unaccompanied minors and takes away feelings of isolation. Beirens (2007) established that a lot of unaccompanied minors felt isolated from other members of their society because they had limited opportunities of meeting with other children with similar cultures and backgrounds. Nonetheless, unaccompanied minors continue to face negative perceptions which impacts on their social networks due to being dispersed in disadvantaged areas (Duvell, 2005).

The Home Office (2005) published a document titled, “Integration Matters: A National Strategy for Refugee Integration” which explore the meaning of integration. It focused on helping refugees by empowering them to successfully reach their desired objective of becoming a member of the British society. The document highlights the “Indicators of Integration Framework” which was developed by Ager &Strang (2004).

The following table 1 shows the ten key domains central to the integration of refugees (Ager &Strang, 2004).