This essay will critically discuss how attachment theory can
provide an explanation for stalking behaviour.

Two
specific criminal offences of stalking were introduced in the UK in November
2012, previously people accused of stalking were prosecuted under harassment
laws but only when their actions were seen to cause a fear of violence. The new
offences meant a charge could be brought when an alleged stalker’s behaviour
caused serious alarm or distress. “Stalking is not legally defined
but section 2A (3) of the PHA 1997 lists a number of examples of behaviours
associated with stalking. The list is not an exhaustive one but gives an
indication of the types of behaviour that may be displayed in a stalking
offence” (The Crown Prosecution
Service.
Para 138, 2018).

There
were 7,706 cases of stalking recorded between 1 April 2013 and 4 February 2016
by all police forces in England and Wales, according to a large-scale freedom
of information request by the charity the Suzy Lamplugh trust (2016). However,
1.1 million people, said they have experienced stalking over a period of one
year, according to the British Crime Survey (2015). This illustrates that a small
proportion of all cases of stalking were either reported to police, or recorded
as stalking after being reported. The Suzy Lamplugh trust (2016) says only
about half of victims go to the police.

While stalking definitions vary among researchers, in the UK stalking is not defined legally and in America the definition changes amongst jurisdictions. Stalking is generally seen as unwanted, harassing, and threatening behaviour that occurs repeatedly (Tjaden and Thoennes, 1988). Some stalking definitions require the victim to experience fear (Tjaden, Thoennes and alison 2000, Meloy 1988) whereas other do not (Crown prosecution service 2018; Jordan, wilcox and Pritchard 2007). This led researchers to define and measure a range of stalking-like behaviours, Given the lack of a general definition used in the literature (Purcell, Flower, & Mullen, 2008). They have been variously referred to as unwanted pursuit behaviours (Langhinrichsen-Rohling, Palarea, Cohen, & Rohling, 2002), intrusive contact (Haugaard & Seri, 2004), and obsessive relational intrusion (Spitzberg et al., 1998). It is important to distinguish if the definition in the literature requires fear, as Dietz and Martin (2007) reported that one fourth of stalking victims do not experience fear or threats.

Stalking
is a multifaceted phenomenon that can arise, and be maintained, by a range of
motives. There is no reason to assume that stalkers with different motivations
share the same characteristics. A number of typologies have been proposed that
separate stalkers into more distinct stalker categories (De-Becker 1997,
Emerson et al 1998, Geberth 1992, Holmes 1993, James and Farnham 2003,
Schwartz-watts and Morgan 1998, Spencer 1998). Few of these typologies have
been subjected to rigorous empirical examination (Coleman, 1997, Patton, Fox
& Nobles  2010, Del Ben &
Fremouw, 2002).

Attachment is defined as a strong affectional bond with a specific person who cannot be replaced (Bowlby, 1980). If the child’s caregiver frequently fails to meet its needs for support and protection, the child will develop an internal working model (a cognitive framework used for understanding the world, the self and others) where they may see others as untrustworthy and unreliable and of themselves as unworthy of being responded to (Bowlby, 1977).  Bowlby (1969) recognised that infants do not have the ability to manage emotions from birth. Therefore, the support from the primary caregiver is crucial in order for the development of self-capacities that produce the ability to control, regulate and react appropriately in stressful circumstances. Thus, undeveloped self-capacities in childhood result in complications and lack of ability to self-soothe (Briere, 1992). Leading to the adoption of maladaptive methods in order to cope and manage negative emotions (Briere, 1992).

For adults, these bonds are with people with whom the person is in a relationship of emotional significance, for example, an intimate relationship (Ling & Qian, 2010). If a bond becomes threatened, individuals engage in behaviours in an attempt to restore the bond (White, Kowalski, Lyndon, & Valentine, 2000). The types of behaviours vary depending on individuals’ attachment styles. Securely attached individuals may engage in open discussions or source comfort from family and friends (Davis, Shaver, & Vernon, 2003; Meyer, Olivier, & Roth, 2005), while insecurely attached individuals may participate in negative or damaging behaviours such as exaggerated expressions of jealousy (Brennan & Shaver, 1995), excessive anger (Davis, Ace, & Andra, 2000; McClellan & Killeen, 2000), coercive control (McClellan & Killeen, 2000) and aggression (Davis et al., 2003). Insecure attachments have been related to the perpetration of stalking (Derlega et al., 2011; De Smet, Loeys, & Buysse, 2012; Tassy & Winstead, 2014) and the frequency of stalking behaviours (Davis et al., 2000). Attachment theory suggests that all individuals alternate between the attachment styles throughout their life in response to different situations/relationships; however, individuals tend to adopt one dominant style which is highly dependent on early attachment relationships.

Meloy
(1992, pp. 37-38) was the first to apply attachment theory to stalking
behaviours, defining stalking as “an extreme disorder of attachment.”  Meloy (1992) explained that stalkers fit into
Bartholomew’s (1990) four type model of attachment styles, Secure; Preoccupied;
Dismissing and Fearful. The latter three styles are referred to as ‘insecure’
attachment styles. The anxious (preoccupied)
attachment style in adults’ links to the anxious (ambivalent) attachment style
in children. The dismissive (avoidant) attachment style and the fearful (avoidant)
attachment style, which are distinct in adults, match to a single avoidant
attachment style in children. typically, stalkers fit into the
Preoccupied (Anxious) attachment pattern (Spitzberg & Cupach, 2003).
However, this has not been directly measured on a general population (Meloy,
2003), nevertheless other studies have found supportive arguments for this idea
(Guerrero, 1998; Lewis, Fremouw, Del Ben and Farr, 2001).

Attachment
theory has generated a number of contrasting if not contradictory explanations
of stalking. It is proposed that the development of an insecure attachment
style weakens the individual’s ability to appropriately manage relationships in
adulthood with a tendency to stalk (Kienlen 1988,
Meloy 1996, Hudson 2006, McCan 2001 and Wilson et al 2006). Attachment theory
suggests that stalking evolves from a pathological adult attachment style that
develops as a consequence of interruptions to the development of secure
attachments in childhood (Davies 2000,Kielnen 1997, Tonin 2004, Mackenzie 2008,
Patton, Fox & Nobles  2010;
Langhinrichsen-Rohling and Rohling 2000).

Research
on adult attachment styles suggests that sub-types of insecure attachment
should not be considered entirely separately. Ross, McKim, and DiTommaso
(2006,p. 307) noted, “given that different dimensions appear to underlie the
different styles, the benefit of assuming that different attachment styles are
complementary as opposed to mutually exclusive provides a fuller, more accurate
representation of adult attachment tendencies.” Patton, Fox & Nobles  (2010) also found that insecure attachment
styles should not be seen as opposed to each other.  

Research
offers some support for the suggestion that insecure adult attachment increases
an individual’s tendency to stalk (Patton, Fox & Nobles  2010, Tonin 2004, Kienlen 1988). It appears
that stalkers frequently fail to form secure parental attachments as children,
perceiving their parents, particularly their fathers, as neglectful in terms of
the care and emotional sustenance provided (Patton, Fox & Nobles  2010, Tonin 2004, Davis & Frieze 2000,
Langhinrichsen-Rohling 2000, Mackenzie et al 2008). Research
has found that 76% of those who held insecure attachments were survivors of
childhood abuse (Muller, Sicoli & Lemieux, 2002). However, Tonin
(2004) found that the stalking group (convicted stalkers) were more
overprotected by their fathers, and more Insecure in attachment style than the
control group (community sample). However, in this sample all the stalkers were
all detained under the mental health act. This could imply that other factors
may be influencing this behaviour and it may not relate to the wider
population. It is possible that persistent mental health issues reduce a
stalker’s likelihood to cease their stalking behaviour. Research has looked at,
psychosis and personality disorder. While findings for these are mixed (Farnham,
James, & Cantrell, 2000; James et al., 2010; McEwan & Strand, 2013;
McEwan et al., 2009; Mullen et al., 1999).

There
is evidence that when insecure attachments are developed when young they
persist into adulthood and have a damaging impact on the impressions that
evolve about self and others (Internal working model). In turn, this impacts on
the stalker’s ability to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships (Patton,
Fox & Nobles  2010). Kienlen,
Birmingham, Solberg, O’Regan, and Meloy (1997, p. 331) discussed that many
stalkers are insecurely attached to their victims and that this insecure
attachment is reinforced “in the face of continuous rejection.” Thus, they
carry on with their stalking behaviour despite the victim rejection.

Individuals
with preoccupied (anxious) attachments are chronically anxious about rejection and
abandonment (Spitzberg & Cupach, 2003) they look strongly for intimacy,
often developing extreme dependence on intimate partners (Eells, 2001) Furthermore anxiously attached individuals struggle to be
soothed from others (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Ells (2001) found that a link
between relationship breakdowns and the inability to manage their emotions,
which could then lead to stalking. Lyndon et al (2011) Completed a
meta-analysis over 50 studies and found the majority of stalking
research focuses on intimate partner stalking. However, there are six different
types of stalkers identified in the literature, not all of them include
Intimate partner stalking. Therefor attachment theory may not account for all
typologies of stalkers. Although, Typologies are not often discussed in detail
when looking at attachment research. This may be because few
typologies have been subjected to rigorous empirical examination (Coleman,
1997, Patton, Fox & Nobles  2010, Del
Ben & Fremouw, 2002).

Studies
have shown that showed that stalkers with a preoccupied attachment style, stalk
for significantly longer than stalkers with other types of insecure attachments
(MacKenzie et al 2008, Johnson & Thompson 2016). Stalkers that persisted
for longer appeared to struggle with a need for intimacy and a fear of
abandonment, while at the same time were more distrusting of intimate partners,
experiencing more discomfort with intimacy, than less persistent stalkers
(Derlega et al., 2011; Dutton & Winstead, 2006; Johnson and Thompson). However,
Tonin (2004) reported that preoccupied attachment was not associated to the
presence/absence of stalking. Fixated stalkers (who stalk one victim for many
years) exhibited significantly more preoccupied attachments than serial stalkers
(who target multiple victims). Therefore, stalking persistent may not be
related to different attachment types. 
It could perhaps be that stalkers with serious disorders of attachment
(personality disorders) or with higher levels of attachment anxiety are more
persistent (Johnson and Thompson 2016).

Bartholomew
and Horowitz (1991) propose that the negative view of self and others, as
reflected in the fearful style of attachment (insecure attachment), can lead to
a dependency on others to maintain positive self-regard whilst fearing
anticipated rejection. With such a dependency, the idea of rejection becomes unbearable,
and the repeated rejection or a failure to obtain ‘‘justice’’ may lead the
individual to manifest extremes of anger (Bartholomew and Horowitz 1991).

High
levels of insecure attachment style have also been reported among samples of
self-reported stalkers from student populations (Davis et al 2000,
Langhinrichsen-Rohling and Rohling 2000, Dutton 2006, Lewis et al 2001). Fox, Nobles & Akers (2011) reviewed 56 empirical articles published
between 1996 and 2011, they found the majority of studies on stalking focused
on convivence sampling of students. Therefor relatively little is known about
stalking among national representative samples of adults. It would be of
interest to see if research using samples that are representative of the
general population, would have the same results. Nobles et al (2009) suggest a
majority of stalking occurs before college, therefor research may be missing
out on a big proportion of stalking preparators and victims.

Johnson
& Thompson (2016) found in their study that 19%
of ex-intimate stalkers exhibited a secure attachment style, 30% evidenced a
fearful attachment style, 45% evidenced a preoccupied attachment style and 6%
evidenced a dismissing attachment style. Attachment
theory Ignores that securely attached individuals also become stalkers. It also
ignores some aspects of the environment. For example, could stalking behaviour
be learned or reinforced through social groups (Social learning theory). (Fox,
Nobles and Akers 2011) found that stalking perpetrators react positively to
friends involved in stalking. This could also link to cognitive distortions as
they are rationalising their stalking behaviour (Fox, Nobles and Ackers 2011).

Throughout the literature there are inconsistencies in how stalking is
defined. The majority of the literature is from America where the legal
definition changes depending on the jurisdiction. In America and the United
Kingdom stalking compromises of combination of behaviours rather than a single
behaviour. The diverse definitions of stalking are unlike other definitions
when researching crime. A compatible definition and measurement would allow for
greater theoretical development and integration.

Fox, Nobles & Akers (2011) found that 65% of the studies they looked
at, on stalking defined it by unwanted persistent behaviour. Some of the
research on stalking does not explain what is mean by persistent behaviour (Dutton
and Winstead 2006). Other studies have specified the behaviour must greater
than ten times (mullen, pathe, murdell & stuart 1999, Pathe, Mullen &
Purcell 2000). This could discount individuals who feel they have been stalked
but the behaviours were under ten. It is difficult to compare research when
they may not have looked at the same behaviour, or they behaviour is unclear.

Fox, Nobles & Akers (2011) found that 100% of the articles they
reviewed looked at stalking throughout an individual’s life time. This may gain
more of a response rate, however there is potential confound from retrospective
interpretation of past events (Benard 2000, Henry et al 1994). Retrospective
call of events and emotions have been frequently used by prior research (Smith
and Ellsworth 1985). When research is looking at attachment they look retrospectively
to an individual’s childhood which again could cause confound.  Interviews with perpetrators could avoid time
order problems (Horney et al 1995). Fox, Nobles & Akers (2011) found the
majority of studies on stalking focused on convivence sampling of students
therefor a student’s life time would be considerable different to an older
individuals which could cause different responses. 

The majority of studies on attachment and stalking use self-reporting
measures, various researchers have raised concerns around this.  (Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000; Kurdek,
2002; Feeney, 2002a; Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002). Self-report measures only probe the conscious attitudes towards
relationships and memories (Mikulincer & Shaver 2007). There
may also be a perceptual bias contained in the measure, in that individuals who
are characterized as having maladaptive patterns of attachment may be unable to
correctly interpret social cues from their others, and therefore, may be unable
to identify the pursuit behaviour as unwanted, frightening, etc. (Patton, Fox
& Nobles  2010). Stalking measurements validity and reliability are generally not
discussed in articles (Fox, Nobles & Akers, 2011).  It is therefore unclear if they do not mention
it because it meets the criteria so they omit this or whether it is unreported
because they fail to meet it.

There are a number of self-reporting measures that look at attachment
and various ones have been used in the literature. Researchers have expressed
concerns around the variety of alternative measures of
anxiety and avoidance that have been developed throughout the years
(Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991; Brennanetal.,1998;Collins&Read,1990;Griffin
& Bartholomew, 1994b; J. A. Feeney, Noller, & Hanrahan,1994; Fraley et
al.,2000; Simpson, Rholes, & Nelligan,1992).Detailed research assessing the
reliability and validity of many of these different measures remains limited. However,
Mikulincer and Shaver (2003) highlighted the need for further for further
research to address this limitation in attachment literature. As previously
discussed individuals may find it difficult to identify themselves as either
stalkers or as the correct attachment style which questions the reliability of
the studies.

The majority of the research on stalking looks at Male only perpetrators
despite 77% of perpetrators being male, while 22% are female (cupach and
spittzberg 2004). Few theories have looked at or
acknowledge gender (Davis, et al.2010; Duntley and Buss2010). Two
studies with US college students, suggested that female perpetrators of
stalking engaged in more mild aggressive stalking behaviour’s than men (Dutton
and Winstead2006; Williams and Frieze2005). Another study (Sinclair and
Frieze2000) also found women engaged in more moderate levels of stalking behaviour
than men, and no gender differences were found for severe stalking behaviour.
Women are more likely to be stalked by an intimate partner than are men (Budd
and Mattinson2000; Tjaden and Thoennes1998). Due to the lack of empirical
research is it difficult to identify how attachment theory links to women
perpetrators. Would there be any gender differences with attachment styles or
would attachment be the same despite gender. One explanation for gender differences
could be cultural and social norms as female participants view stalking
situations as more serious than male participants (Cupach and Spitzberg 2000; Dennison
2007; Dennison and Thomson2002; Hills and Taplin1998; Spitzberg, Cupach &
Ciceraro, 2010)

All
of the above research may not necessarily associate to a causal finding; that
is, while insecure (specifically anxious) relationship attachment style is
positively and significantly associated with stalking perpetration, none of the
data could not conclusively indicate that stalking was caused by insecure
attachment. This type of research does highlight
that insecure attached individuals do represent a high percentage of the
stalking population. This leads to the question, could it just be
characteristics of stalkers relate to insecure attachment. Attachment theory
fails to take account of environmental factors. Furthermore, it fails to
recognise that securely attached individuals do stalk. It also, does not
account for the individuals are who insecurely attached and do not ever take
part in stalking like behaviours. It does however recognise that the internal
working model (how we see the world, our self and others) differs between
attachment styles, the application of social learning theory and control
balance theories could assist to further explain stalking behaviours.  

References

Bartholomew, K. (1990)
‘Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective’. Journal of Social and
Personal Relationships 7: 147–78.

Bartholomew K, Horowitz
LM. Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model. J
Pers Soc Psychol 1991;61:226–44.

Bowlby, J.
(1969). Attachment. Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Loss. New York: Basic
Books.

Bowlby, J. (1977) ‘The
Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds’. British Journal of Psychiatry 130:
201–10. Bowlby, J. (1980) Attachment and Loss: Vol. III. Loss, Sadness and
Depression. New York: Basic Books

Bowlby, J.
(1980). Loss: Sadness & depression. Attachment and loss (vol. 3);
(International psycho-analytical library no.109). London: Hogarth Press

Brennan, K. A., Clark,
C.L., & Shaver P.R. (1998) Self report measurements of adult attachment. An
integrative overview. In J.A. Simpsin & W.S. Rholes (eds) attachment theory
and close relationships (pp 46-76) New York: Guilford.

Brennan,K.,&Shaver,P.(1995).Dimensions
of adult attachment, affect regulation, and romantic relationship functioning.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 267–283.

Briere, J.
N. (1992). Child abuse trauma: Theory and treatment of the lasting effects.
Sage Publications, Inc.

Budd,
T., & Mattinson, J. (2000).The extent and nature of stalking: Findings from the 1998 British
Crime Survey (Home Office Re- search Study No. 210). London: Home
Office.

Coleman. F. (1997).
Stalking behaviour and the cycle of domestic violence. Journal of interpersonal
violence, 12, 420 – 432

Collins, N., & Read,
S. (1990). Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating
couples. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 58(4),
644-663. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.58.4.644

Crime
in England and Wales – Office for National Statistics. (2015). Ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 13 January
2018, from https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/crimeinenglandandwales/yea

Cupach, W. R., &
Spitzberg, B. H. (2000). Obsessive relational intrusion: Incidence, perceived
severity, and coping. Violence and Victims, 15, 357–372.

Cupach,
W. R., & Spitzberg, B. H. (2004).The dark side of relation- ship pursuit: From attraction to
obsession and stalking Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Davis KE, Ace A, Andra M.
Stalking perpetrators and psychological maltreatment of partners:
anger-jealousy, attachment insecurity, need for control, and break-up context.
Violence Vict 2000;15(4):407–25.

Davis KE, Frieze
IH. Research on stalking: what do we know and where do we go? Violence Vict
2000;15:473–87

Davis, K., Shaver, P.,
& Vernon, M. (2003). Physical, emotional, and behavioural reactions to
breaking up: The roles of gender, age, emotional involvement, and attachment
style. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 871–884.
doi:10.1177/0146167203029007006

Davis, K. E., Swan, S. C.,
& Gambone, L. J. (2010). Why doesn’t he just leave me alone? Persistent pursuit: A critical
review of theories and evidence.
Sex Roles, this issue. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9882-3.

De Becker G. The gift of
fear: survival signals that protect us from violence. London: Bloomsbury, 1997.

Del Ben, K., &
Fremouw, W. (2002) Stalking: developing an empirical typology to classify
stalkers. Journal of forensic science, 47, 152-158

Derlega, V. J.,Winstead,
B. A., Pearson, M.R., Janda, L. J., Lewis, R.J., Dutton, L. B.,…Greene, K.
(2011). Unwanted pursuit in same-sex relationships: Effects of attachment
styles, investment model variables, and sexual minority stressors. Partner
Abuse, 2(3), 300–322. doi:10.1891/1946-6560.2.3.300

Dennison, S. M. (2007).
Interpersonal relationships and stalking: Identifying when to intervene. Law
and Human Behavior, 31, 353– 367. doi:10.1007/s10979-006-9067-3.

Dennison, S. M., &
Thomson, D. M. (2002). Identifying stalking: The relevance of intent in common
sense reasoning. Law and Human Behaviour, 26, 543–561.
doi:10.1023/A:1020256022568.

De Smet, O., Loeys, T.,
& Buysse, A. (2012). Post-breakup unwanted pursuit: A refined analysis of
the role of romantic relationship characteristics. Journal of Family Violence,
27, 437–452. doi:10.1007/ s10896-012-9437-1

Dietz, N., & Martin,
P. (2007). Women Who Are Stalked. Violence Against Women, 13(7),
750-776

Duntley, J. D., & Buss, D. M. (2010). The evolution of
stalking. Sex Roles, this issue.

Dutton LB, Winstead BA.
Predicting unwanted pursuit: attachment, relationship satisfaction,
relationship alternatives, and break-up distress. J Soc Pers Relat
2006;23(4):565–86.

Emerson RM, Ferris KO,
Gardner CB. On being stalked. Soc Probl 1998;45(3):289–314.

Farnham, F., James, D.,
& Cantrell, P. (2000). Association between violence, psychosis, and
relationship to victim in stalkers. The Lancet, 355(9), 199.

Feeney, J.A., Alexander,
R., Noller, P., & Hohaus, L. (2003) Attachment insecurity, depression and
the transation to parenthood. Personal realtionships, 10, 475-493.

Fox, K., Nobles, M.,
& Akers, R. (2011). Is stalking a learned phenomenon? An empirical test of
social learning theory. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 39(1),
39-47.

Fraley, R.C., &
Shaver, P,R. (2000) Adult romantic attachment: the theoretical devolpemnts,
emerging controvisies and unanswered questions. Reiew of general psychology, 4,
132 – 154.

Griffin, D.W. &
Bartholomew, K. (1994). Models of self and others: fundamental dimensions
underlying measures of adult attachment. Journal of personality and social
psychology, 59, 511-524

Haugaard, J. J., &
Seri, L. G. (2004). Stalking and other forms of intrusive contact among
adolescents and young adults from the perspective of the person initiating the
intrusive contact. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31, 37–54.

Hills, A. M., &
Taplin, J. L. (1998). Anticipated responses to stalking: Effect of threat and
target-stalker relationship. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 5, 139–146.
doi:10.1080/13218719809524927

Holmes RM. Stalking in
America: types and methods of criminal stalkers. J Contemp Crim Justice
1993;9:318–27.

Hudson-Allez G. The
stalking of psychotherapists by current or former clients: beware of the
insecurely attached! Psychodyn Prac 2006;12(3):249–60.

James DV, Farnham FR.
Stalking and serious violence. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 2003;31:432–9.

James, D., McEwan, T.,
MacKenzie, R., Meloy, J., Mullen, P., Pathé, M., Farnham, F., Preston, L.,
& Darnley, B. (2010). Persistence in stalking: A comparison of associations
in general forensic and public figure samples. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry
and Psychology, 21(2), 283–305.

Johnson,
E., & Thompson, C. (2016). Factors associated with stalking persistence. Psychology,
Crime & Law, 22(9), 879-902

Jordan, C. E., Wilcox,
P., and Pritchard, A.J. (2007) Stalking acknowledgment and reporting among
college women experiencing intrusive behvaiours: implications for the emergence
of a “classic stalking case”. Journal of criminal justice, 35, 556-569

Kamphuis J, Emmelkamp
PMG, De Vries V. Informant personality descriptions of postintimate stalkers. J
Pers Assess 2004;82(2):169–79.

Kienlen, K. K.,
Birmingham, D. L., Solberg, K. B., O’Regan, J. T., & Meloy, J. R. (1997). A
comparative study of psychotic and nonpsychotic stalking. Journal of the
American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 25, 317−334.

Kienlen KK. Developmental
and social antecedents of stalking. In: Meloy JR, editor. The psychology of
stalking: clinical and forensic perspectives. San Diego, CA, US: Academic
Press, Inc, 1998;51–67.

Langhinrichsen-Rohling,
J., & Taylor, J. (2003). After the breakup: Relationship factors associated
with intimate relationship stalking. Kingston, NJ: Civic Research Institute

Langhinrichsen-Rohling J,
Rohling M. Negative family-of-origin experiences: are they associated with
perpetrating unwanted pursuit behaviors? Violence Vict 2000;15(4):459–71.

Langhinrichsen-Rohling J,
Palarea RE, Cohen J, Rohling ML. Breaking up is hard to do: unwanted pursuit
behaviors following the dissolution of a romantic relationship. Violence Vict
2000;15(1):73–90.

Lewis SF, Fremouw WJ, Del
Ben K, Farr C. An investigation of the psychological characteristics of
stalkers: empathy, problem-solving, attachment and borderline personality
features. J Forensic Sci 2001; 46(1):80–4.

Lyndon,
A., Sinclair, H., MacArthur, J., Fay, B., Ratajack, E., & Collier, K.
(2011). An Introduction to Issues of Gender in Stalking Research. Sex Roles,
66(5-6), 299-310.

MacKenzie, R., Mullen, P.,
Ogloff, J., McEwan, T., & James, D. (2008). Parental Bonding and Adult
Attachment Styles in Different Types of Stalker*. Journal Of Forensic
Sciences.

McCann JT. Stalking in
children and adolescents: the primitive bond. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association, 2001.

McClellan, A., &
Killeen, M. (2000). Attachment theory and violence towards women by male
intimate partners. Journal of Nursing Scholarships, 32(4), 353–360.

McEwan, T., Mullen, P.,
& MacKenzie, R. (2009). A study of the predictors of persistence in
stalking situations. Law Human Behaviour, 33, 149–158.
doi:10.1007/s10979-008-9141-0

McEwan, T., & Strand,
S. (2013). The role of psychopathology in stalking by adult strangers and
acquaintances. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 47(6),
546–555. doi:10.1177/ 0004867413479408

Meloy JR. Stalking
(obsessional following): a review of some preliminary studies. Aggress Violent
Behav 1996;1:147–62

Meloy, J. R. (1998). The
psychology of stalking. In J. R. Meloy (Ed.), The psychology of stalking:
Clinical and forensic perspectives. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Meloy, J. R. (1992).
Violent attachments. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.

Meyer, B., Olivier, L.,
& Roth, D. (2005). Please don’t leave me? BIS/BAS, attachment styles, and
responses to a relationship threat. Personality and Individual Differences, 38,
151–162.

Mikuliner, M., &
Shaver, P, R. Measurement of attachment related constructs in adulthood.
Attachment in adulthood?: structure, dynamics and change. New York: Guilford
press, 2007. Pp 81-115.

Muller, R. T., Sicoli, L.
A., & Lemieux, K. E. (2000). Relationship between attachment style and
posttraumatic stress symptomatology among adults who report the experience of
childhood abuse. Journal of traumatic stress, 13(2), 321-332

Mullen, P.E., Pathe, M.,
Murdell, R., & Stuart, G. W. (1999) Study of stalkers. The American journal
of psychiatry, 156, 1244 -1249.

Mullen, P.E., Pathe, M.,
& Purcell, R. (2001) The management of stalkers. Advances in psychiatric treatment,
7, 335-342

Nobles, M.r., Fox, K.A.,
Piquero, N., & Piquero, A.R. (2009) Career dimensions of stalking
victimization and perpetration. Justice quarterly, 26, 476 – 503.

“Out of Sight, Out of
Mind” (London: Suzy Lamplugh Trust, 2016). Retrieved 13 january 2018, from https://www.suzylamplugh.org/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=0d387e89-1fb4-48cd-818e-138dc84563eb

Patton, C., Nobles, M.,
& Fox, K. (2010). Look who’s stalking: Obsessive pursuit and attachment
theory. Journal Of Criminal Justice, 38(3), 282-290.

Purcell, R., Flower, T.,
& Mullen, P. E. (2008). Adolescent stalking: Offence characteristics and
effectiveness of criminal justice interventions.

Ross, L., McKim, M.,
& DiTommaso, E. (2006). How do underlying “self” and
“other” dimensions define adult attachment styles?. Canadian
Journal Of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement,
38(4), 294-310.

Schwartz-Watts D, Morgan
DW. Violent versus nonviolent stalkers. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law
1998;26(2):241–5.

Shaver, P.R. &
Milkulincer, M. (2002) Attachment-releated psychodynamics. Attachment and human
devolpment. 4, 133-161.

Sheridan, L., Davies, G.,
& Boon, J. (2001). The course and nature of stalking: A victims
perspective. Howard journal of criminal justice, 40 (3), 215 – 234

Simpson, J.A., Rholes,
W.S., Campbell, L., & Wilson, C.L. (2003) Changes in attachment
orientations across the transition to parenthood. Journal of experimental
social psychology, 39, 317-331

Sinclair,H.C.,&Frieze,I.H.(2000).Initialcourtshipbehaviorandstalking:How should we draw the line? Violence and Victims, 15, 23– 40.

S.J.
Hucker, Encyclopedia of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 2016, 684

Smith, C.A &
Ellsworth, P.C. (1985) Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of
personality and social psychology

Stalking and Harassment |
The Crown Prosecution Service. (2018). Cps.gov.uk.
Retrieved 13 January 2018, from https://www.cps.gov.uk/legal-guidance/stalking-and-harassment#a02b

Stalking
prosecutions at record high.
(2018). BBC News. Retrieved 13 January 2018, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-29143668

Spencer AC. Stalking and
the MMPI-2 in a forensic population [dissertation]. Detroit, MI: U Detroit
Mercy, 1998.

Spitzberg, B., Cupach,
W., & Ciceraro, L. (2010). Sex Differences in Stalking and Obsessive
Relational Intrusion: Two Meta-Analyses. Partner Abuse, 1(3),
259-285.

Spitzberg, B., Nicastro,
A., & Cousins, A. (1998). Exploring the interactional phenomenon of
stalking and obsessive relational intrusion. Communication Reports, 11, 33–47.

Tassy, F., &
Winstead, B. (2014). Relationship and individual characteristics as predictors
of unwanted pursuit. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 187–195.

Tjaden, p., Thoennes, N.
and Alison, C.J. (2000) Comparing stalking victimisation from legal and victims
perspectives. Violence and victims. 15, 7-22.

Tjaden, P., and Thoennes,
N. (1988) stalking in America:? Findings from the national violence against
women survey (special report NO NC 1669592). National instisute of justice,
centres of disease control and prevention. Washington DC: Bearue of justice
statitcs. US department of justice.

Tonin E. The attachment
styles of stalkers. J Forensic Psychiatr Psychol 2004;15(4):584–90

White, J., Kowalski, R.,
Lyndon, A., & Valentine, S. (2000). An integrative contextual developmental
model of male stalking. Violence and Victims, 15(4), 373–388.

Williams, S., & Frieze, I. (2005). Courtship behaviors, relationship violence, and breakup Persistence in college men and women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 248 – 257.

Wilson JS, Ermshar AL,
Welsh RK. Stalking as paranoid attachment: a typological and dynamic model.
Attach Hum Dev 2006;8(2):139–57.