The concept of policing a state has had to undergo a change of mindset due to the global nature of today’s world. There was anecdotal evidence that the training was outdated and did not take into account the cross cultural differences that exist in Qatar. This study investigates this hypothesis and evaluates the quality of training at the Police Training Institute in Qatar After conducting an exhaustive literature review covering cross cultural differences, systems thinking and different delivery methods a methodological evaluation of public sector training was conducted using the Soft Systems Methodology of Professor Peter Checkland.
The key findings to come out of the SSM Analysis were: the police training did not meet the participants’ expectations, course content failed to provide trainees with new skills, the delivery of the courses lacks interaction and courses were not useful or challenging. A conceptual model was developed that dealt with:
A new course was designed, delivered, tested and evaluated. This was a course on Systems Thinking. Also a App was designed for mobile phones which enabled the course to be delivered in a more modern manner which used the concept of social media.
The final analysis showed that the Systems Thinking ideas were well received and more courses need to be designed at all levels. It suggested that there is a future for mobile technology in training and it encouraged organisations to experiment with this form of delivery. Recommendations were made for future training at the Police Training Institute and these were well received by the Ministry of Interior of Qatar .
It also suggests that the PTI is an ideal candidate for a learning organisation, which would help it to understand what is happening in the outside environment and produce creative solutions using the knowledge and skills of all within the organization
Acknowledgement
I would like to extend my gratitude to all my colleagues at the Ministry of Interior and The Prime Minister & Minister of Interior Sheikh Abdulla Bin Naser Aal Thani who encouraged and supported me to do this thesis.
Particular thanks are due to Professor Moscardini for his supervision, insight and dedication over a long period of time.
My warmest appreciation to Professor Mohamed Loutfi, Vice-chancellor of Cardiff Metropolitan University for his care and advice.
My special thanks are also due to all participants for their patience, understanding and generous love during work on interviews.
Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my beloved parents and home country Qatar.
Hamad Al Kaabi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Background to the Research
2.1.2 Characteristics of Effective Course Content
2.2.1 Theoretical Frameworks Relevant to ‘Cultural Differences’
2.2.2 Studies That Focus on Cultural Differences Relevant to Learning & Training
2.3.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of SSM
2.3.5 SSM Applications in Learning Environments
2.4 Systems Thinking and the Learning Organization
2.4.1 The Concept of Systems Thinking
2.4.2. The Concept of Systems Dynamics (SD)
2.5 Delivery of Training Courses
2.5.1 The Role of ICT in Learning and Vocational Training
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
3.3 Research Design – Use of a Pluralistic Approach
3.3.1 SSM with Case Study and Action Research
3.3.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Research Strategies
3.5 Research Procedures Adopted for the Present Study
3.6 Research Aims and Objectives
Chapter 4 Soft System Analysis of the Problem
4.2 Stage One of SSM – The Methodological Evaluation
4.2.1 Results of the Analysis of Data Obtained from the Questionnaire
4.2.2 Results of the Analysis of Data Obtained from the first set of Semi-Structured Interviews
4.3 Stage 2 of SSM: Problem Situation Expressed (Rich Picture)
4.4 Stage 3 of SSM: Problem Orientated Root Definitions
4.4.1 Problem-oriented Root Definitions
4.4.2 Formulation of Performance Measures
4.5 Stage 4 Creation of a Conceptual Model
4.6 Stage 5 Comparison with the Real World
4.6.3 Methods of Delivery of Training Courses
4.7 Stage 6 Identification of Changes
Chapter 5 Response to the Soft System Analysis
5.1.1 Course to Test Cultural Differences and Teaching Skills
5.1.2 Evaluation of Changed Teaching Style to Reflect Cultural Differences
5.1.3 Evaluation of New Delivery Method
5.1.4 Course to Test New Content
5.2.1 Session One – Perception
5.2.2 Session Two – Ways of Thinking
5.2.3 Session Three – Problem Solving
5.3.1 Session Four – Different Paradigms
5.3.2 Session Five – The Systems Paradigm
5.3.3 Session Six – Cybernetic Principles
5.4 Part Three: Thinking Tools
5.4.1 Session Seven – Causal Modelling
5.4.2 Session Eight – Systems Dynamic Modelling
5.4.3 Session Nine – The Learning Organisation
5.5 Evaluation of the New Course
5.6 Discussion of Cultural Differences for the Course
Chapter 6 New Methods of Training Delivery
6.2 The Population and Technology Environment MENA (Middle East and North Africa) Region.
6.2.1 Population Demographics & Technology Penetration
6.2.2 Mobile and General Technology Usage in the Middle East
6.2.4 Choosing a Device for Training Delivery
6.3 Developments in Training Technologies and Approach
6.4 Mobile Application Concept Overview and Considerations
6.4.5 Project Lifecycle and Schedule
6.4.6 Requirements Planning – APP Design Focus
6.4.7 Architecture Overview and Main Components
6.5 Planned Usage Mapped to App Design
6.5.2 Planned Usage Measures Against the Design
6.8.2 My Profile Screen and Progress
6.8.4 Share Learning and Comments
6.8.7 Early Design Qualification by Potential Users
6.8.8 App Distribution and Consumption
6.9 Evaluation of the Use of Apps in Training
6.9.1 The use of App in delivering a course
6.9.2 The readability of the “notes”
6.9.3 The ability to communicate within the group at anytime and anywhere
6.9.4 The ability to communicate within the group at anytime and anywhere
6.9.5. The availability of feedback (trainer only)
6.9.6. Feedback on the general idea of using the App
6.10.1 Deployment Options and Financial Considerations
Chapter 7 Summary, Recommendations and Further Actions
7.5 Achievement of the Objectives
B. Survey Questionnaire 1 (Pre-Test)
C. Survey Questionnaire (Post-Test)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review on Course Content
Table 2.4 Literature Review Matrix of the Definitions and Connotations of SSM
Table 2.5 Literature Review Matrix Relevant to the Purpose of SSM
Table 2.6 Literature Review Matrix of the Strengths and Weaknesses of SSM
Table 2.7 Literature Review Matrix Relevant to SSM Applications in Learning Systems
Table 2.8 Summary of the Results of Literature Review Related to the Systems Thinking Concept
Table 2.9 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review Related to the Concept of SD
Table 2.10 Summary of Literature Review Results Related to the Different Applications of SD
Table 3.1 Various Features of the Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms
Table 4.1 Summary of the Results of Statistics of the Pre-Test Likert- Scale Questions
Table 4.2 Summary of the Results of Statistics of the Post -Test Likert- Scale Questions
Table 4.5 Action Plan Incorporating the Objectives, Relevant Tasks, Tome Frame and Success Criteria
Table 6.2 Tablet Sales Predictions for 2013, 2014 and 2015
Table 6.3 Planned Usage Measures Against the Design
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework of the Present Study – Seven Stages Version of SSM
Figure 3.1 Research Methodology of the Present Study
Figure 4.1 Rich Picture of the Problems of Vocational Training in Qatar’s Public Sector
Figure 5.1 Multiple Viewpoints
Figure 5.2 General Methodology for Solving Problems
Figure 5.5 Model Identification
Figure 5.12 Expanded Feedback Loop
Figure 5.13 Feedback Loop of Pressure on the Jails
Figure 5.15 Feedback Loops of Petroleum Drilling
Figure 5.16 Generic Structure Producing Overshoot And Collapse (With A Non-Renewable Resource)
Figure 6.1 Mobile Usage in MENA Source: FrootApps (2013)
Figure 6.2 Snapshot of Technology Service Usage in MENA Q2 2014
Figure 6.3 Tablet Adoption Rates for Desktop PC and Tablets in Selected Countries
Figure 6.4 Smartphone Adoption Rates Around the World
Figure 6.5 Global MEMS Unit Shipment by Consumer Electronics Device, 2006-1013
Figure 6.6 Projected Move to Communicating in Smaller And More Focused Groups
Figure 6.7 RAD Lifecycle Approach
Figure 6.8 Early Architechtural Design
Figure 6.11 My Profile and Progress Screens
Figure 6.14 Training Comments Screens
Figure 7.1 Process Flow Chart of the Research Aims and Objectives of the Present Study
Figure 7.2 Letter from the Ministry of Interior
Flouris and Yilmaz (2010) argue that an “effective management of human resource-based risks is a cornerstone factor” of organisational success. Similarly, PricewaterhouseCoopers (2008), an internationally- successful advisory service, emphasise that addressing human factor-based risks are crucial for the success of the organisation. In fact, they maintained that it is critical to place ‘people’ at the heart of any system. Indeed, Aloini, Dulmin and Mininno (2007) elucidate that inadequate training of employees is one of the main risks associated with human factors. Bhattacharya and Wright (2005) maintain that within the context of today’s market conditions, “the pervasiveness of complex technology in all spheres of business and the fast rate of change in technology create greater risks that an employee is unable to keep up with these changes or is unable to learn new skills.” They also argue that employee skills must be continuously upgraded and that employees must be provided with new growth opportunities in order for them to learn them. Subramanian, Sinha, and Gupta (2012) recommend that training programs also be used to match employee skills to organisational needs. In the same vein, Hartmann et al. (2010) recommended that talent management strategies should focus on recruiting and retaining “highly qualified employees, who are offered higher wages, better job opportunities, a better quality of life and stronger R&D facilities.” Hence, the importance of training and continuous professional development cannot be undermined.
In 1970, Nadler coined the term ‘human resource development’ and provided a model, which featured three components, namely: training, education, and development (Nadler & Nadler, 1991). Since Nadler’s inception of the term, a dichotomous approach to HRD has emerged: on one side was a learning and development paradigm that focused on the enhancement of training and development (Garavan, Heraty & Barnicle,1999); and on the other, a performance outcomes paradigm which focused on developing individuals to enhance organisational performance outcomes (Swanson & Holton, 2001). However, Simmonds and Pedersen (2006) contended that “HRD is a combination of structured and unstructured learning and performance-based activities which develop individual and organisational competency, capability and capacity to cope with and successfully manage change.”
A significant number of contributions have highlighted the various challenges that the public sector had to overcome in the last two decades (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). These challenges were largely anchored on the following issues, namely: an ageing workforce, cost-effective delivery of services, restructuring, and leadership talent shortages (O’Brien, 2010; Whittington & Campion-Smith, 2010; McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). Such premium placed on cost-efficiency in the public sector in the US and the UK since the 1980s and the 1990s, have driven public sector institutions to utilise and implement more ‘business-like’ practices in organisational management (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). Such a trend in adopting more ‘business-like’ practices in organisational management has been further reinforced by the global economic downturn which has been characterised by budget cuts throughout the UK and Canada, subsequently giving rise to the ‘new public management’ which was centered on efficiency and effectiveness (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). However, it has been documented by various researchers that public sector professionals were mostly not adequately trained to effectively collaborate in such an exigent setting (McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). It is in this context that Coxhead at al. (2010) explicate that “it is not surprising that government departments and other public sector professionals are constantly looking for ways to develop the skills of their managers and future leaders.”
As explicated by Fernandez and Rainey (2006), “reform initiatives have swept through governments in the United States and overseas, again and again bringing news about efforts to reinvent, transform, or reform government agencies.” Part of such transformation is the premium placed on training public sector employees for increased organisational efficiency and performance (Coxhead at al., 2010; McCraken, Brown & O’Kane, 2011). The correlation between training and public service efficiency has been anchored on the premise that human capital (e.g. knowledge, skills, and behaviour) strengthens the importance of people-related competences that are linked with the ‘new public management’ construct.
Indeed, the important role of training in raising the performance of public sector organisations has generated mainstream political support since the 1980s, particularly in most industrialised nations (Laferty & Roan, 2000). In Australia, policy makers have underscored the critical role that its national skills base plays in the achievement of international competitiveness leading to the restructuring of its workforce training programs and institutions since the early 1980s (Laferty & Roan, 2000). Canada’s public sector at present, is using talent management to “recruit and retain highly-trained, qualified staff”. Part of its talent management is the training of public sector employees which is considered “central to public service renewal and success […]” (Glenn, 2012).
In Germany (since 1969 and by virtue of its Work Support Act) there has been a consistent yearly increase in the amount of public resources being allocated for the support of vocational training by the Federal Labor Office. After the 1990 reunification, “due to the large effects of the transformation process on the labor market, public vocational training played an even more important role in the eastern part of Germany” (Hujer & Wellner, 2000). During such time, Germany wisely utilized its strong support for training and considered it “a very important instrument of active labor market policy attempting to increase productivity and to reduce unemployment” (Fitzenberger & Prey, 2000). Since then, training has been viewed as one of the most important and promising components of Germany’s labour market policies —mirroring the case of many continental European countries which “used active labour market policies as important tools for reducing Europe’s notoriously high levels of unemployment without the painful side effects of substantial market reforms” (Lechner, Miquel & Wunsch, 2011).
In the UK, “the provision of world class services remains at the heart of the current government’s political strategy” as has been reflected in government spending data which showed substantial and consistent increase in public services expenditures (Murphy et al., 2008). Indeed, findings of a study conducted by Murphy et al. (2008) indicate that a significant training advantage exists for public sector workers due to “social externalities, alternative behavioral objectives, tax appropriation, job security, hierarchical wage structures, differences in wage dispersion, rent sharing and worker sorting ” .
In the same vein, Qatar’s public sector management is centered on the attainment of an efficient delivery of public services. As clearly explicated in the official website of the Qatar National Project Management (QNPM):
Qatar is developing and growing with clear vision and strategy. Qatar’s public service is at the forefront, improving infrastructure, modernizing services, and helping to take its place in the international community. Like governments around the world, Qatar’s public service is increasingly focused on effective, efficient delivery that will support continued success and prosperity. Qatar has many important projects underway, and there are more to come (‘Qatar’, 2007).
Indeed, included in Qatar’s National Development Strategy 2011−2016 are the intended reforms for its vocational training system which include the following plans , namely: (1) strengthening technical education and vocational training; (2) developing “an organizational model for technical education and vocational training” and building the required capabilities; (3) developing “a regulatory framework to align technical education and vocational training with the education sector and labour market needs”; (4) aligning “technical education and vocational training programmes and outputs with the needs of society and the labour market”; and (5) increasing “the prominence of technical education and vocational training programmes” (‘Qatar National Development Strategy 2011~2016’, 2011, pp.140-143).
However, despite the strides that governments around the world have taken in order to achieve the goal of public service efficiency through the adoption of ‘business-like’ practices in organisational management, the wide array of challenges brought about by dynamically-changing environments made achieving the aforementioned goal difficult (OECD, 2008). The OECD (2008) explicates the difficulties faced by public sector institutions around the world:
Personnel systems are becoming less adaptive to these new challenges. Indeed, traditional practices in public administration are the product of a different context with different priorities. Now, governments have a new role in society and are taking on new responsibilities but generally without the necessary tools to manage them effectively. Public managers are expected to improve the performance of their organisations focusing on efficiency, effectiveness, and propriety which were not the priorities 50 years ago. Therefore, to be able to respond to a changing environment the public sector has to transform its structures, processes, procedures, and above all, its culture” (OECD, 2008).
It is in this context that the extant situation of the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector needs to be understood, thereby requiring a thorough examination of the current situation of the aforementioned vocational training system using an appropriate methodological framework such as the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM). The utility of SSM in problem structuring has been highlighted in extant literature (Goddard et al., 1994). SSM has been found to possess an intrinsically evaluatory characteristic which helps improve problematical situations by bringing about a systematic assessment of the current situation and then prescribing the desirable changes that must be made (Kayrooz & Trevitt, 2005). In addition to the aforementioned benefits of using SSM to diagnose the problems affecting the vocational training system in Qatar’s public sector, SSM has also been recognized to be useful for dealing with real-world problems of management associated with learning and systems design (Checkland & Scholes, 1990; Reid et al., 1999; Hindle, 2011; Hardman and Paucar-Caceres, 2011).
Qatar has recently undergone a massive reform of the structure of its ministries and state institutions that comprise its public sector to improve the quality and effectiveness of their civil service. This was evidenced by the consistent promotion of ongoing vocational training of all public sector employees. However, such training is almost exclusively based on Western theory and practice. Yet Arab countries have their own distinctive national culture and practices and there is a significant danger that culturally- inappropriate training will affect all stakeholders in government services. As Lewis (2006) notes:
“Westerners and Arabs have very different views about what is right and wrong, good and evil, logical and illogical, acceptable and unacceptable. They live in two different worlds each organised in its own manner. (Lewis, 2006). To be most effective, any government must serve the local population and all its other stakeholders. However, it must do so in a way that is deemed acceptable to the majority served and be seen to reflect the culture of its people. If a significant perceived gap arises between civil service culture and local culture, a great danger is the potential alienation of its civil society. Each of the trends towards overseas training and education potentially widens the cultural gap between Qatari civil servants and the people they serve. Western practice has been exported around the world, including the Gulf Region and Qatar. Often this is spread by training. Yet in the last thirty years, researchers have increasingly noted a strong influence of local culture on many areas of business and organisational practice. “
There is no universally- agreed definition of culture amongst social scientists. Various leading researchers have defined culture in different ways. In the GLOBE Project (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House, 2007, House et al., 2008), researchers from 38 countries came together to develop a collective understanding They defined it as: “shared motives, values, beliefs, identities, and interpretations or meanings of significant events that result from common experience of members of collectives and are transmitted across age generations”
A well -established cultural theory posits that that each group or category of people carries with it a set of common mental programmes that create its national culture. Each of the major studies and many minor studies confirm this and are closely correlated (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Culturally, the Western world — which is largely represented by Americans, British and Northern Europeans — and the Arab world — are widely separated and clearly delineated. This significantly complicates the interchange of ideas (Lewis, 2006). Importing essentially alien methods of management, education and training go a long way to institutionalising the effects of any westernisation of public services. The result is that pressures to conform to an alternative culture are creating strong resistance and an even stronger trend towards national cultural identity.
When studies exist, other states within the region, notably Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and UAE, have received far more specific attention than Qatar. Even so, the region has long been regarded as displaying a strong common culture (Lewis, 2006). This is because of a common history and the overwhelming influence of Islam in every facet of personal and organisational life in the region (Adler, 2002). This has led to a strong Arab identity, especially in the Gulf, helped by institutions such as the influential Qatar based Al-Jazeera broadcaster. As a result, world-renowned cultural theorists such as Lewis (2006), Trompenaars and Hampden Turner (1997), and Hofstede (1980, 1991) and many other authors use the allusion “the Arab World” to refer to the individual Gulf states . This facilitates the generalisation and application of research findings to “the Arab World” as a whole.
Welsh and Raven (2006) note that in the Gulf region, family and religious values probably have a major influence on the way organisations are managed. This makes them fundamentally different from public services in the OECD countries. Yet the trend towards overseas education and training potentially widens the cultural gap between Qatari civil servants and the people they serve. This has become a matter of serious concern to people in Qatar and elsewhere in the Gulf (Al Kaabi, 2007). Indeed, the Qatar National Vision 2030 (GSDP, 2008) clearly states that the:
Preservation of cultural traditions is a major challenge that confronts many societies in a rapidly globalizing and increasingly interconnected world […]. Qatar’s rapid economic and population growth have created intense strains between the old and new in almost every aspect of life.(GSDP, 2008).
In this thesis, the term ‘training’ has the narrow meaning of vocational training. Thus defined, training improves the skills and knowledge needed for a particular job function or trade. This might include continued professional development (CPD) but not taking the professional qualifications themselves. It might take the form of practical training, a short course, or sometimes full-time or part-time study in a University or College. The latter will not include academic courses such as recognised degrees and higher degrees. The need is therefore to improve the vocational training to help Qatar utilise its workforce to the fullest extent.
The thesis consists of seven chapters and appendices.
Chapter One gives the background to the research problem and describes the general aim and the need for this research.
Chapter Two is the literature review. This covers a discussion on training in general, cross-cultural differences especially related to training, methods of analysis in particular the Soft Systems methodology, choice of content for new courses, different methods of delivery, Systems thinking and the Learning Organisation.
Chapter Three describes the research methodology: namely the research philosophy, the research design and the research procedures. A research aim and objectives are formulated and the originality of the research discussed. The chapter finishes with discussions of the ethical considerations involved.
Chapter Four describes the application of the Soft Systems methodology to the problem of training in Qatar. This results in a Rich Picture, a set of performance measures and a clear exposition of the problem. The major recommendations were to produce new courses and different delivery methods.
Chapter Five describes, in detail, a new course in Systems thinking which was specifically designed for the top management in the public Sector in Qatar. It also evaluates the course using the agreed performance measures.
Chapter Six examines the use of mobile phone technology for the delivery of courses in Qatar. The researcher commissioned a software company to produce a prototype according to his specifications and design, which was then tested on a selected audience.
Chapter Seven summarises the result of this work and details recommendations for improvement of the public service training in Qatar..
The present study aims to investigate the vocational training system at the ministries in Qatar and to suggest recommendations for its improvement. To achieve such aim, the present study begins by conducting a literature review relevant to training, cultural differences, soft systems methodology (SSM) and systems thinking.
During the conduct of the review, the following dominant themes relevant to the present study emerged, namely: (1) variations in training; (2) cultural differences which include the different frameworks that are focused on cultural differences, studies that focus on cultural differences relevant to learning and training; (3) the SSM concept; (4) innovative course content which included the systems thinking concept and its application and utility in training; and (5) methods of delivery of training courses which include the role of ICT in learning and vocational training.
The structure of this section is as follows: First, results of the review pertinent to training are presented. This will be followed by a discussion of the following topics: (1) course content, which include the characteristics of effective course content, systems thinking concept and its application and utility in training; (2) cultural differences, which include the different frameworks that are focused on cultural differences, as well as studies that focus on cultural differences relevant to learning and training; (3) the SSM concept, the purpose or goal of SSM, the SSM paradigm, the strengths and weaknesses of SSM, and the application of SSM in learning systems; (4) systems thinking and systems dynamics; and (5) methods of delivery of training courses which include the role of ICT in learning and vocational training.
Qatar has its economy deeply rooted in oil — particularly in natural gas production. However, like other states in the Arabian Gulf region, Qatar is currently diversifying its economy. Its medium and long-term ambitions are to create the capacity to compete on an international and global level with a much more varied economy. This has invariably meant significant changes in people’s attitudes, especially in business and government. Vocational training has long been seen as a means of improving Qatar’s public services.
While Qatar has recognised the importance of training, the picture on training provision is mixed. There are numerous training centres attached to various ministries and government institutions. Both private and public sectors use various bespoke training courses, while government officials regularly attend training programs organised by internationally- known organisations (GSDP, 2007). Most seem to offer mainly Western style training courses. GSDP (2007) admits that: “officials still a lack necessary expertise to undertake higher tasks they lack skills needed to develop themselves, despite their multiple participation in training.”
One institution that is highly involved in public sector training is the Institute of Administrative Development (IAD). The IAD was originally established by Law No. (6) of 1997, although its origins goes back to 1964 as the Institute for Administration. The IAD has for some time, been one of the main official centres of expertise of public services in Qatar. It offers training courses in three major areas, namely: administration, finance and information technology (IAD, 2011a). The IAD has being reorganised three times. The first time was in 1997 under Law No. (6) of 1997. Later, under Decree Law No. (27) of 2007. Its role was expanded to training for administrative development. More recently under Emiri Decision (56) of 2009, IAD’s role was made to be closely aligned with the Qatar National Vision 2030 (QNV2030) (GSDP, 2008).
In its 2010-2011 planning handbook (IAD, 2010), the IAD makes a firm link between QNV 2030 and its development programmes. It now offers courses at three management levels and aims to collaborate with ministries, government departments and bodies and public institutions. The IAD fortifies its international links and collaboration with international partners including European and American organisations (IAD, 2011a). Indeed, a specialist independent ‘Co-operation Unit’ has now been created to strengthen overseas links (IAD, 2011b). The IAD now undoubtedly stands at the heart of the public sector training system in Qatar. The boundaries of this training system will be examined and analysed in terms of its ‘sphere of influence’. This will be established by reviewing and analysing:
Despite the relatively growing number of academic studies in the region that delve on vocational training, Only a few studies have addressed the subject of public sector training, especially within the context of Qatar. Hence, this study is envisaged to significantly add to the body of knowledge available in this field for researchers, policy makers and practitioners in the Gulf.
Within the context of the present study, the term ‘training’ is taken to mean vocational training. Thus defined, training improves the skills and knowledge needed for a particular job function or trade. This might include continued professional development (CPD) but not taking the professional qualifications themselves. It might take the form of practical training, a short course, or sometimes full-time or part-time study in a university or college. The latter will not include academic courses such as recognised degrees and higher degrees.
The boundaries provided by Buyens and Wouters (2005) will be used to decide whether a particular training programme was excluded from the research. Buyens and Wouters (2005) suggest the following conditions for public sector training programmes: ‘decision’, ‘objectives’, ‘employees’ and ‘financing’. A training programme should result only from a ‘decision’ taken by the enterprise to offer training. The primary ‘objective’ must be to enable the participant to gain new competencies or develop existing ones. Basic familiarisation programmes for the job, organisation or working environment such as induction programmes do not fall within the given classification. The ‘employee’ condition will be met only if the person undertaking training has a working contract with the employer sponsoring training. People such as apprentices or those receiving special training will not be included. Finally, to fall within the survey population, the training activity should be ‘financed’ partly or entirely by the concerned ministry, whether directly by the provider or indirectly by the employees themselves. Part financing includes time off during normal working hours for training, or paying for special training equipment.
The last 50 years has led to the massive development of vocational training in both public and private sectors. Training has generally been ‘outer-directed’ by HRM departments, and training needs often stemmed from organisational goals rather than individual needs (Pedler, 1994). Systematic training is a key aspect of human resource development, although much of the training now takes place with cohorts of trainees being trained in the same skills. Problems with this traditional style of management training subsequently led to a re-focusing on ‘learning’ with significant emphasis on learning-styles development.
Where used, the theory involved in training is often subsumed under a broader learning theory. It borrows most of its principles from the education theory, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom 1956; Brabrand and Dahl, 2008) and various cognitive theories (Brown, et al. 1989; Dawson, 2008; Lave, 1988; McClelland, 1995; Sitzmann, et al., 2010). Other theories used include Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth, 1987, 1992; Reigeluth & Stein, 1983), Experiential Learning (Chisholm, et al, 2009) from authors such as Kolb (1984) and Honey and Mumford (1982); Organisational Learning (Argyris & Schon 1978; Bennet & Bennet, 2008); and Social Learning Theory (Akdere, 2005; Bandura, 1973, 1986). Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory has particular relevance to the Ministry of Interior (Fields, 2000; Gagne, 1962; Gagne & Driscoll, 1988; ITLS, 2009; Richey 2000) as it developed from military training and key aspects of the Ministry of Interior are organised along military lines.
Extant learning literature points to the three major dimensions of learning: skills, knowledge and attitude (Nadler & Nadler 1994). Training quality in public administration must consider these dimensions along with the views of several key stakeholders and applicable learning perspectives (Rusaw, 2007). These perspectives will include those of the learner, the training facilitator and the organisation. Together, these will allow an organisation to develop an appropriate training model where both the needs of the organisation and the trainees are considered in the drive for quality.
There are many definitions of the term ‘quality’ though many authors agree that Juran’s definition of “fitness for intended use” is at the heart of most quality systems (Juran, et al. 2010). This is expanded in ISO 9000 which defined ‘quality’ “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.” When it comes to training, most authors agree that quality can only be properly defined by a system of training evaluation (Piskurich, et al. 2000).
There are two major forms of training evaluation. The first is based on a pragmatic system developed by Donald Kirkpatrick (1959) and is underpinned on empirical information. The second form is theoretically- based (Tamkin, et al. 2002). In the USA especially, systems developed by the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (IBSTPI) are widely- used (Erickson 1982; Fischer 2009).
After 50 years since its development, the Kirkpatrick (1959) approach has received wide recognition (Birnbrauer 1987; Brown and Gerhardt 2002; Dixon 1996; Lopker and Askeland 2009; Phillips 2007). Some authors such as Hamblin (1974); Tannenbaum and Woods (1992); Kaufman and Keller (1994, Kaufman, et al. 1995); Phillips (1995, 1999) incorporated additional features to the Kirkpatrick model. Authors such as Tannenbaum and Dupuree-Burino (1994); Dixon (1996); Alvarez, et al. (2004); Nichols (2005) and Brinkerhoff (2006) expanded the Kirkpatrick model to include more steps and covered a wider range of stakeholders in training evaluation.
Kirkpartrick’s (1959) model has four levels of evaluation, namely: (1) level 1 – reaction or feedback of participants; (2) level 2 – learning or learning success of participants; (3) level 3 – behaviour or learning transfer/application on the job; and (4) level 4 – results as measured by business success (Gessler, 2009). According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2005), “reactions of participants shall be measured on all programs for two reasons: to let the participants know the value of their reactions and to measure their reactions and obtain suggestions for improvement.” The importance of participant feedback was based on the premise that “if training is going to be effective, it is important that trainees react favourably to it” (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). For level 2 – Kirkpatrick (1959, cited in Gessler, 2009) explained that the success of the training programme can be gauged if it is able to accomplish the following: (a) if the participants are able to gain an understanding of the “concepts, principles and techniques being taught”; (b) if the participants are able to “develop and/or improve skills”; and (c) if the participants have changes in their attitudes.
In addition, Kirkpatrick (1959, cited in Gessler, 2009) provided some important guidelines for evaluating learning success. These guidelines, as enumerated by Kirkpatrick (1959) include the following: (1) measuring “knowledge, skill and /or attitudes before and after the training”; (2) using “a paper- and- pencil test for knowledge and attitudes”; (3) administering a “performance test for skills”; (3) generating 100% response rate; and (4) using “a control group that does not receive training to compare it with the experimental group that receives training.”
Level 3 evaluation, as explained by Gessler (2009), involves the successful application of the learnt materials in the workplace. Kirkpatrick (1959) developed the following guidelines for measuring behavioural change due to training: (1) if possible, evaluate behaviour pre and post training; (2) since behaviour modification “and the development of new behavioural patterns take time, so the evaluation should be repeated after an appropriate amount of time”; (3) conduct a survey of one or more stakeholder groups consisting of “participants, superiors, colleagues of participants and others who can evaluate the behaviour of participants”; and (4) undertake “a cost-benefit analysis.”
Level 4 evaluation, as pointed out by Kirkpatrick (1959) involves the evaluation of business results. According to Kirkpatrick (1959, cited in Gessler, 2009), the following question should be addressed during the evaluation: “how have business results changed due to training?” Kirkpatrick (1959) elaborated that “results could be determined by many factors including less turnover, improved quantity of work, improved quality, reduction of waste, reduction in wasted time, increased sales, reduction in costs, increase in profits, and return on investment (ROI).”
However, one of the criticisms of Kirkpatrick’s (1959) model is that it was a largely pragmatist approach with weak theoretical grounding. Developers of other models have attempted to create training evaluation models that are anchored on theoretical grounds and covered areas such as parallel learning, education and knowledge transfer. Holton (1996) was one of Kirkpatrick’s fiercest critics. He believed that any good evaluation model would specify outcomes correctly and account for the effective intervening variables that affect outcomes and indicate causal relationships. He proposed his own model with three primary outcome measures — learning, individual performance, and organisational results — which placed greater emphasis on secondary influences, especially individual learning characteristics that ties training in its evaluation much more closely into the learning theory.
A dominant theme that emerged during the literature search related to vocational training is the topic of ‘course content.’ In addition, the importance of ‘systems thinking competencies’ in the context of the learning organisation construct emerged as a new perspective relevant to training. Hence, this section of the literature review will discuss the results of the review pertaining to the following themes: (1) characteristics of effective course content within the context of vocational training; and (2) systems thinking competencies within the context of training in general.
Boyce and Pahl (2007) have highlighted the significance of course content in knowledge acquisition by explaining that course content is important in the acquisition of knowledge about a particular subject because knowledge, although intrinsic in nature, is also an implicit aspect of course content. According to Rudestam and Schoenholtz-Read (2002), vocational training courses should be designed in such a way that they match the trainees’ needs. This view was supported by Chan et al. (2006) who argued that since the main goal of vocational training organisations is to afford industry-specific knowledge and skills to enhance the employability of individuals, these training organisations must design and subsequently deliver training courses that cater to the needs of trainees. Hence, Chan et al. (2006) elucidated that course content must be designed in such a way that employees or trainees are able to address industry-specific problems in their workplaces. Thus, course content must be designed by taking into consideration, the employee’s own perspective on the manner by which their work-related needs are to be met.
Bradley (2002) suggested that training courses should be designed in such a way that they can be undertaken flexibly. Similarly, in the report commissioned by Germany’s Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (2012) that delves on the selection and structuring of content of vocational training courses, it was emphasised that since vocational training is intended to adapt to current developments, course content should be “adaptable and flexible to account for new circumstances.” Furthermore, the report stressed the following salient points: (1) the training concept must be integrated into the cultural and social conditions of a country; (2) course content must be flexible and adaptable to the changing conditions of labour markets; (3) course content should allow “insights into general connections so that subjectively meaningful, networked knowledge structures can be developed” (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012).
These suggestions buttress earlier recommendations made by Godfey (1997) regarding the design of course content for vocational training programmes. According to Godfey (1997), training institutions should be flexible enough to effectively respond to the dynamically- changing labour market situations. To achieve this, Godfey (1997) recommended the following: (1) course designers should be well in touch with the latest technological trends and international product markets that will affect the future economic structure of the country; (2) course designers should be consistently in touch with educators, trainers, employers, trainees, observers and job seekers in order to have a ‘feel’ for the relevant training programmes and labour markets.
In a study conducted by Pohl et al. (2005) which evaluated the design of an e-learning system for vocational training, it was concluded that the trainees found the course interesting and engaging which accounted for the high success rate of the training based on the completion rate. In addition, the trainees viewed the course as simple and usable — since the course content were perceived by trainees as highly relevant to their work practice. Findings of a study conducted by Nkirina (2009) which explored the challenges associated with integrating entrepreneurship education in Tanzania’s vocational training system point to the need for courses to be less theoretical and more practical; as well as to be more interesting to trainees as opposed to being boring. Hence, findings from the studies conducted by Pohl et al. (2005) and by Nkirina (2009) buttress the claims earlier made by Rudestam and Schoenholtz-Read (2002) and by Chan et al. (2006) with regards to the requirement for course content to meet the needs of trainees and to help them address problems specific to their workplaces.
Although most of the aforementioned literature (Godfey, 1997; Bradley, 2002; Rudestam & Schoenholtz-Read, 2002; Chan et al., 2006; Boyce & Pahl, 2007; Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012) is largely prescriptive in nature and hence lacks critical analysis, their key ideas were nonetheless buttressed by empirical studies (Pohl et al., 2005; Nkirina, 2009). Table 2.1 presents the summary of the results of the literature review on course content.
Table 2.1 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review on Course Content
| Author | Type of Literature | Characteristic of Effective Course Content |
| Godfey (1997) | Peer-reviewed journal article |
|
| Bradley (2002) | Case Study | Offers flexibility |
| Rudestam and Schoenholtz-Read (2002) | Reference book | Matches the needs of trainees |
| Chan et al. (2006) | Peer-reviewed journal article |
|
| Pohl et al. (2005) | Peer-reviewed journal article (Empirical research) |
|
| Boyce and Pahl (2007) | Peer-reviewed journal article | Facilitates knowledge acquisition about a particular subject |
| Nkirina (2009) | Peer-reviewed journal article |
|
| Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, (2012) | Commissioned Report |
|
Source: Created by the Researcher
There is a significant body of extant literature that delves on the different frameworks that are focused on cultural differences. These frameworks include the following: (1) cross-cultural dimension framework by Hofstede (1980; 2001); (2) seven dimensions of culture by Schwartz (1992); (3) cultural syndromes by Triandis (1994); and (4) dimensions of culture by Trompenaars (1993).
Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework is anchored on the assumption that the actions of people from all over the world are guided by ethical norms, attitudes, customs, and morals. In his seminal work on cultural differences, Hofstede (1980) elucidated that people possess ‘mental programs’ that contain a dimension of national culture that are cultivated and reinforced through experience. Hofstede’s (1980) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework was based on a primary research involving a large sample of employees from 40 countries employed by IBM. Hofstede’s (1980; 2001) framework consists of five cultural dimensions, namely: (1) Power Distance Index (PDI) which pertains to the extent of power inequality amongst organisational members; (2) Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI), which is the extent to which organisational members feel threatened by ambiguous or uncertain situations; (3) Individualism (IDV) vs. Collectivism, which pertains to the extent by which individuals are integrated into groups, with individualism being defined as “a loosely knit social framework in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and of their immediate families only”; and collectivism being “characterised by a tight social framework in which people distinguish between ingroups and outgroups, they expect their in-group to look after them, and in exchange for that they feel they owe absolute loyalty to it” (1980); (4) Masculinity (MAS)–Femininity (FEM) which pertains to “the extent to which the dominant values in society” are either masculine which is characterised by “assertiveness, the acquisition of money and things, and notcaring for others, the quality of life, or people” (1980); or feminine, which is characterised by those attributes that are opposite of masculine traits; and (5) Confucian dynamism (or long-term vs short-term orientation) which pertains to the way society perceives the dimension of time horizon, whereby long-term oriented societies are deemed likely to place a premium on the future time horizon and place importance on pragmatic values; while short-term oriented societies, on the other hand, are deemed likely to place importance on values relevant to the past and the present such as steadiness and respect for tradition (2000).
A significant body of literature has cited Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework. It has been recognised for its “clarity, parsimony, and resonance with managers” (Kirkman, Lowe & Gibson, 2006). Even Trompenaars (1993) claimed that Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework is responsible “for opening management’s eyes to the importance of the cross-cultural management subject.” Indeed, Hofstede’s framework has been used in wide-ranging contexts since it was able to serve as the foundation for cross-cultural research related to a diverse range of disciplines (Blodgett, Bakir & Rose, 2008).
However, Hofstede’s framework has also received a lot of criticisms. For instance, Blodgett et al. (2001) argued that Hofstede’s framework was largely based on a national level of analysis and is thus used solely for comparing systematic differences in cultures across nations. In a later work, Blodgett, Bakir & Rose (2008) found that Hofstede’s framework lacks construct validity when used at an individual level of analysis. In addition, Blodgett, Bakir & Rose (2008) maintained that “overall, a majority of the items were lacking in face validity, the reliabilities of the four dimensions were low, and the factor analyses did not result in a coherent structure.” Indeed, Hofstede (1996) himself admitted that the Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework is not intended to be used at an individual level of analysis, citing the difference between the analysis within a particular culture and between different national cultures.
Schwartz (1992) explored the inner layer of the culture onion which he referred to as ‘value’ by administering a survey to teachers and students in more than 40 countries and asking them to rate the importance of 56 values that serve as a guiding principle in their lives and are considered “universal human value types” (Ng, Lee & Sautar, 2007). Schwartz (1992) analysed the survey results by categorizing them into two levels — the individual and the cultural level. This categorization in turn lead to the generation of two individual level dimensions (i.e. conversation to openness to change, and self-transcendence to self-enhancement) and three cultural-level dimensions (i.e. embededness vs. autonomy, hierarchy vs. egalitarianism, and mastery vs. harmony). The following are the seven cultural level value types as proposed by Schwartz (1992): (1) conservatism, which occurs when society places a premium on close-knit relations, maintenance of status quo and avoidance of actions that tend to disrupt traditional order; (2) intellectual autonomy, which pertains to the recognition of individuals as autonomous entities who possess the prerogative to pursue their intellectual interests; (3) affective autonomy, which pertains to the recognition of individuals as autonomous entities who possess the prerogative to pursue their hedonistic interests and desires; (4) hierarchy, which pertains to the importance that a society places on the legitimacy of hierarchical roles and the allocation of resources; (5) mastery, which pertains to the manner by which society places importance on the active mastery of the social environment and individuals rights; (6) egalitarian commitment, which pertains to the emphasis placed by society on the supremacy of selfless interests; and (7) harmony, which pertains to the emphasis placed by society on harmony with nature.
Several researchers have compared Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework with Schwartz’ (1992) Seven Dimensions of Culture in terms of the scope of the cultural dimensions of each respective framework. Steenkamp (2001) and Kagitcibasi (1997) argued that Schwartz’ values capture more cultural aspects than the dimensions developed by Hofstede. In addition, Brett and Okumura (1998) stressed that Schwartz’s framework is superior to Hofstede’s because “[…]it is based on a conceptualization of values; it was developed with systematic sampling, measurement and analysis techniques; and […] its normative data are recent, collected in the late 1980s and early 1990s.” These earlier observations were later supported by Ng, Lee and Soutar (2007) who emphasised that Schwartz’ values contribute more and hence, play a more important role in trade-related studies compared to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. However, a key criticism of Schwartz’ (1992) Seven Dimensions of Culture is that that the cultural values were based purely on assumptions (Peng, Nisbett & Wong, 1997). Peng, Nisbett and Wong (1997) argued that validity for common methods of cross-cultural comparisons of values cannot be assumed but must be proved.
Triandis (1994, 1995), using secondary research, conceptualized the Cultural Syndromes Framework based on the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism which in turn, is comprised of various attitudinal and behavioural dimensions that define self- other relations. Triandis (1994, 1995) analysed the cultural dimension of individualism–collectivism as identified by G. Hofstede (1980), using items developed empirically in 9 different cultures. The individualism-collectivism construct describes “the degree where people feel that care should be taken of or to care of themselves, their organizations and families” (Chung et al., 2011). According to Tafarodi and Walters (1999), Triandis (1994, 1995) hypothesised that “collectivism is high in cultures that are simple and tight.” Chung et al. (2011) explained that when gathered together in groups, collectivists tend to orient themselves towards group interests and consider themselves as “members of extended organizations or family.” Carpenter’s (2000) findings buttressed this hypothesis by affording empirical evidence that highlights the correlation of collectivism and tightness. Mills and Clark (1982) describe collectivists as behaving in a communal manner, having a predilection to prioritise the achievement of common goals and to shape their behaviour in accordance with their in-groups norms.
Triandis and Suh (2002) noted the presence many collectivist cultures and explained that these collectivist cultures that can be grouped into two major categories, namely: (1) vertical collectivist culture; and (2) horizontal collectivist culture. According to Triandis and Suh (2002), in vertical collectivist cultures such as India, the following characteristics are predominant: traditionalism, placing emphasis on in-group cohesion, high respect for in-group norms as well as for the directives of authorities. Such classification was later supported by Altemeyer (1996) and by Bond and Smith (1996). Altemeyer (1996) described vertical collectivist cultures as being closely associated with the following attributes: right wing authoritarianism, an inclination to be submissive to authority and to endorse conventionalism. Bond and Smith (1996) described vertical collectivist cultures to be traditionalists with a high predilection to follow the norms set by the group. On the other hand, horizontal collectivist cultures such as Israel are characterised by emphasize empathy, sociability, and cooperation (Triandis & Suh, 2002).
Triandis et al. (1998; cited in Rogers & Spitzmueller, 2009) maintained that individualism, which is the opposite of collectivism, is defined as “the subordination of a group’s goals to the individual’s goals.” Triandis and Suh (2002) elucidated that the cognitive structure of individualists is primarily comprised by an independent self-construal wherein an individual is inclined to regard oneself to be fixed and the environment to be malleable or changing. Triandis and Suh (2002) further categorized individualist cultures into vertical individualist cultures and horizontal individualist cultures and claimed that in vertical individualist cultures such as the US corporate world, competitiveness is high, and one must be “the best” in order to effectively climb the corporate ladder. On the other hand, Triandis and Suh (2002) argued that in horizontal individualist cultures such as Australia and Sweden, hierarchical differentiation is not accentuated, but rather, the emphasis is placed on self-reliance, uniqueness and on independence from others.
Greenfield (1999) explained that the individualism-collectivism construct corresponds to the deep structure of cultural differences. Many researchers have studied the individualism-collectivism construct at the cultural level of analysis, especially in the field of cultural psychology (Bond & Smith, 1996). For instance, Norenzayan, Choi & Nisbett (1999) found that East Asians who were making dispositional attributions consider traits as changeable, flexible or malleable, whereas Western individualist participants consider them as fixed or unchangeable. Such findings were buttressed by Krull et al. (1999; cited in Triandis & Suh, 2002) who suggested that cultural differences between East Asians and Westerners occur because “samples from East Asia make situational attributions much more frequently and to a greater extent than samples from the West.”
However, a major limitation of Triandis’ (1994, 1995) Cultural Syndromes, as pointed out by Oyserman and Lee (2008), is that despite the observed consistent patterns of cultural differences across nations that are attributed to the individualism-collectivism construct, “cross-national comparisons cannot of themselves provide conclusive support of this causal role, and for this reason the cross-national evidence can be considered spotty.” Thus, the causal role of the individualism-collectivism construct in cross-cultural comparisons need to be supported by data and should not be based on general assumptions alone (Oyserman & Lee, 2008).
To gain a deeper understanding of the concept of cultural diversity within the business context, Dutch management consultant Fons Trompenaars (1993) developed a framework or model of seven fundamental dimensions of national culture which include the following: (1) universalism versus particularism, (2) individualism versus collectivism, (3) neutral versus emotional, (4) specific versus diffuse, (5) achievement versus ascription, (6) orientation in time, and (7) attitudes towards the environment. Hofstede (1996) explained that while the first five dimensions are useful in describing relationships with other people, the remaining two dimensions are associated with time and the external environment. This framework was developed from a questionnaire based largely upon the identification of cultural and “personal pattern variables or value dilemmas” identified by Parsons and Shils (1951; cited in Smith & Dugan, 1996).
In the first dimension of universalism versus particularism, Trompenaars (1996) explicated that universalist cultures tend to believe that moral reference emanates from general rules and obligations, thus, they are predisposed to follow rules and to attempt to change others’ attitudes so that they can conform to the norms. Particularist cultures, on the other hand, place a premium on particular circumstances rather than on rules. Hence, Trompenaars claimed “bonds of particular relationships (family, friends) are stronger than any abstract rule and the response may change according to circumstances and the people involved.”
In the second dimension, individualism versus collectivism, individualist cultures, are more concerned about individuals’ rights and hence, place lesser importance on the achievement of collective goals than on the achievement of their own individual goals. In contrast, individualist cultures are more concerned about the rights of the society as a whole, than the rights of individuals. Collectivist cultures view the achievement of collective goals more important than the achievement of the goals of individuals.
In the third dimension, neutral versus emotional, He explicated that neutral cultures tend to seek an indirect response wherein different paths to one’s approval is provided. The indirect paths give us emotional support contingent upon the success of an effort of intellect.” On the other hand, emotional cultures tend to provide a direct emotional response which “allows our feelings about a factual proposition to show through, thereby joining feelings with thoughts in a different way.”
In the fourth dimension, specific versus diffuse, Trompenaars explained that people have different ways of expressing their emotions. Generally, however, these can be categorized into specific or diffuse. Accordingly “in specific-oriented cultures a manager segregates out the task relationship she or he has with subordinates and isolates this from other dealings.” In contrast, in diffuse- oriented cultures, the task relationship with subordinates permeates all other life space and different levels of personality at the same time. Diffuse strategies highlight “the importance of a holistic relationship with the organization and its environment” In contrast, in specific-oriented cultures, private and work are sharply delineated
In the fifth dimension, achievement versus ascription, Trompenaars elucidated that achievement-oriented cultures “justify organisational hierarchies by explaining that senior persons have achieved more for the organisation; their authority, justified by skill and knowledge, benefits the organization.”
In the sixth dimension, orientation in time, Trompenaars maintained that time can either be conceived as a sequence or as synchronization. He claimed that cultures who consider time as a sequence consider events to occur sequentially in a particular time frame and often as a result of rational or conscious actions. On the other hand, cultures who consider time a synchronization of events also consider strategies in the short-term, as a result of emerging conditions.
Finally, the seventh dimension, attitudes towards the environment is primarily concerned with the assignment of meaning to the natural environment. Trompenaar elucidated that people who have an organic view of nature tend to assume that man is subjugated to nature and thus, are more inclined to “orient their actions towards others.” In contrast, people who possess a mechanistic view of nature, “in addition to the belief that man can dominate nature, usually take themselves as the point of departure for determining the right action”
Bickerstaffe (2002) highlighted the utility of Trompenaar’s Dimensions of Culture by pointing out that the framework has been deemed useful in the areas of organisational management and change management, specially within the context of corporate acquisitions, mergers and alliances — all of which are susceptible to “dilemmas in relationships with people, dilemmas in relationship to time, and dilemmas in relationships between people and the natural environment.” Bickerstaffe maintained that these dilemmas can be fairly predictable and that the seven fundamental dimensions of national culture can be used to characterize these dilemmas and subsequently reconcile them.
However, the Dimensions of Culture framework did not take into account the impact of individual characteristics on behaviour as the level of analysis is largely on a national or country level of analysis. In addition, in a validation study conducted by Hofstede (1996), wherein Trompenaars’ data were statistically treated using correlation and factor analysis at the country level, Hofstede (1996) criticized Trompenaars’ methodological approach, claiming that only two dimensions could be clearly confirmed statistically — the Individualism / Achievement and Universalism / Diffuse dimensions. Hofstede further elaborated that Trompenaars’ work lacked content validity. Furthermore, Hofstede argued that Trompenaars’ work failed to address the following concerns that are deemed crucial to cultural conflicts, namely: “power struggle, corruption, exploitation, aggression, anxiety, and differing concepts of masculinity and femininity.”
In response to Hofstede’s criticisms, Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1997 ) argued that Hofstede: (1) misapprehended their database; (2) failed to realize that weighted combinations were used in the study, as opposed to individual questions; (3) preferred the use of parametric scaling “where nonparametric is more appropriate”; and (4) was after the ‘perfect model;’ instead of the ‘models-to-learn-with.’
Table 2.2 below presents the summary of the results of the literature review relevant to the models of cultural differences.
Table 2.2 Summary of the Results of the Literature Review Related to the Models of Cultural Differences
| Author | Type of Research Conducted | Concept of Cultural Differences | Framework or Model | Benefits | Criticisms |
| Hofstede (1980, 2001) | Primary research involving a large sample of employees from 40 countries employed by IBM | Cultural differences are anchored on national culture that are cultivated and reinforced through experience. | Cross-Cultural Dimension Framework consisting of five cultural dimensions (power distance index, uncertainty avoidance index, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity –femininity, Confucian dynamism | Serves as the foundation for cross-cultural research related to a diverse range of disciplines, but has been deemed more valuable to management | Largely based on a national level of analysis. Lacks construct validity when used at an individual level of analysis |
| Schwartz (1992) | A survey of teachers and students in more than 40 countries (primary research) | Cultural differences are based on universal human value types | Seven Dimensions of Culture (conservatism, intellectual autonomy, affective autonomy, hierarchy, mastery, egalitarian commitment, harmony) | Captures more cultural aspects than the dimensions developed by Hofstede (Kagitcibasi, 1997). |
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