CHAPTER – I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Carl Rogers’ personal life
Carl Ransom Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was a commanding American psychologist and among the originators of the humanistic methodology (or client focused methodology) of psychology. Rogers is generally thought to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was regarded for his spearheading research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1956.
The Person-Centered approach, his own particular exceptional way to deal with comprehension of identity and human connections, with application in different areas, for example, psychotherapy and guiding (Client-Centered therapy), training (learning focused learning), associations, and other gathering situations. For his expert work, he was given the Award for Distinguished Professional Contributions to Psychology by the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1972. In a study by Haggbloom (Haggbloom, et al., 2002) utilising six criteria, for example, references and acknowledgement, Rogers was observed to be the 6th most prominent analyst of the twentieth century and second, among psychologists, just to Sigmund Freud.
Rogers set up a guiding focus associated with the college and there led studies to decide the viability of his strategies. His discoveries and hypotheses showed up in Client-Centered Therapy (1951) and Psychotherapy and Personality Change (1954). One of his graduate student learning at the University of Chicago, Thomas Gordon, built up the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) development. In 1956, Rogers became the President of the American Academy of Psychotherapists. He taught psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1957–63), amid which time he composed one of his best-known books, On Becoming a Person (1961). Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (1908–70) spearheaded a development theory called ‘humanistic psychology’ which achieved its top in the 1960s. In 1961, he was chosen a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Carl Rogers was additionally one of the general population who scrutinised the ascent of McCarthyism in the 1950s. Through articles, he scrutinised society of its retrogressive looking affinities.
The following two years he exited the theological school to go to Teachers College, Columbia University, getting an MA in 1928 and a PhD in 1931. While finishing his doctoral work, he was occupied with child study. In 1930, Rogers served as chief of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester, New York. From 1935 to 1940 he addressed at the University of Rochester and composed The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child (1939), taking into account his involvement in working with disturbed youngsters. He was emphatically impacted in developing his Person-centred methodology by the post-Freudian psychotherapeutic routine of Otto Rank (Kramer, 1995). In 1940 Rogers became an educator of clinical psychology at Ohio State University, where he composed his second book, Counselling and Psychotherapy (1942). In it, Rogers recommended that the client, by setting up an association with an understanding, tolerating specialist, can resolve troubles and pick up the knowledge important to rebuild their life.
In 1945, he was welcome to set up a guiding and research focus centre at the University of Chicago. In 1947 he was chosen President of the American Psychological Association (APA). While a Professor of psychology at the University of Chicago (1945–57), Rogers set up a guiding focus associated with the college and there led studies to decide the adequacy of his techniques. His discoveries and speculations showed up in Client-Centered Therapy (1951) and Psychotherapy and Personality Change (1954). In 1961, he was chosen a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Carl Rogers was likewise one of the general people who scrutinised the ascent of McCarthyism in the 1950s. Through articles, he condemned society of its regressive looking affinities.
Rogers taught at University of Wisconsin until 1963, when he turned into a resident at the new Western Behavioral Sciences Institute (WBSI) in La Jolla, California. Rogers left the WBSI to help found the Center for Studies of the Person in 1968. His later books incorporate Carl Rogers on Personal Power (1977) and Freedom to Learn for the 80’s (1983). He remained a Resident of La Jolla for the rest of his life, doing treatment, giving discourses and composing until his sudden passing in 1987. In 1987, Rogers endured a fall that brought about a cracked pelvis: he had life alarm and could contact paramedics. He had an effective operation, yet his pancreas fizzled the following night and he passed away a couple of days after the fact.
Rogers’ last years were dedicated to applying his hypotheses in circumstances of political abuse and national social class, making a trip worldwide to do as such. In Belfast, Northern Ireland, he united persuasive Protestants and Catholics; in South Africa, blacks and whites; in Brazil individuals rising up out of autocracy to majority rule government in the United States, shoppers and suppliers in the wellbeing field. His last outing, at age 85, was to the Soviet Union, where he addressed and encouraged escalated experiential workshops cultivating correspondence and imagination. He was amazed at the quantities of Russians who knew of his work.
Together with his little girl, Natalie Rogers, and therapists Maria Bowen, Maureen O’Hara, and John K. Wood, somewhere around 1974 and 1984, Rogers met a progression of private projects in the US, Europe, Brazil and Japan, the Person-Centered Approach Workshops, which concentrated on diverse correspondences, self-improvement, self-strengthening, and learning for social change.
Applications of Carl Rogers’ ‘Person-Centered therapy’ and ‘Student-Centered learning’:
Rogers initially built up his hypothesis to be the establishment of an arrangement of treatment. He at first called this “non-directive therapy” however later supplanted the expression “non-directive” with the expression “Client-Centered” and after that later utilised the expression “Person-Centered”. Indeed, even before the dissemination of Client-Centered Therapy in 1951, Rogers trusted that the standards he was portraying could be connected in an assortment of settings and not simply in the treatment circumstance. Accordingly, he began to utilise the term Person-Centered approach later in his life to depicting his general hypothesis. Person-Centered therapy is the utilisation of the Person-Centered way to deal with the treatment circumstance. Different applications incorporate a hypothesis of identity, interpersonal relations, training, nursing, culturally diverse relations and other “helping” callings and circumstances. Rogers co-wrote Advising with Returned Servicemen (1946), with John L. Wallen (the maker of the behavioural model known as The Interpersonal Gap), reporting the utilisation of Person-Centered way to deal with directing military faculty coming back from the Second World War.
The principal exact proof of the adequacy of the client focused methodology was distributed in 1941 at the Ohio State University by Elias Porter, utilising the recordings of remedial sessions between Carl Rogers and his clients. Doorman utilised Rogers’ transcripts and devised a framework to gauge the level of directiveness or non-directiveness a guide utilised. The state of mind and introduction of the guide were shown to be instrumental in the choices made by the client.
Learner-Centered teaching
The application of training has an expansive powerful research custom like that of treatment with studies having started in the late 1930s and proceeding with today (Cornelius-White, 2007). Rogers portrayed the way to deal with instruction in Client-Centered Therapy and composed Freedom to Learn committed only to the subject in 1969. Opportunity to Learn was reconsidered two times. The new Learner-Centered Model is comparable in numerous respects to this traditional Person-Centered way to deal with instruction. Rogers and Harold Lyon started a book preceding Rogers death, entitled On Becoming an Effective Teacher – Person-focused Teaching, Psychology, Philosophy, and Dialogues with Carl R. Rogers and Harold Lyon, which was finished by Lyon and Reinhard Tausch and distributed in 2013 containing Rogers ongoing unpublished works on Person-Centered teaching. Rogers had the accompanying five speculations with respect to learner-focused instruction:
“A man can’t instruct someone else specifically; a man can just encourage another’s learning” (Rogers C. , 1951). This is an after-effect of his identity hypothesis, which expresses that everybody exists and always show signs of change in a universe of involvement in which he or she is in the middle. Every individual responds and reacts in light of discernment and experience. The conviction is that what the learning does is more critical than what the educator does. The emphasis is on the learning (Rogers, 1951). Along with these lines, the foundation and encounters of the learner are fundamental to how and what is found out. Every learning will handle what he or she realises diversely relying upon what he or she conveys to the classroom.
“A person learns significantly only those things that are perceived as being involved in the maintenance of or enhancement of the structure of self.” (Rogers, 1951). In this manner, the importance of learning is the key to learning.
“Experience which, if assimilated, would involve a change in the organisation of self, tends to be resisted through denial or distortion of symbolism” (Rogers, 1951). The research scholar finds in the works of Carl Rogers is that in the event that the substance or presentation of a course is conflicting with biased data, the learning will take on the off chance that he or she is interested in differing ideas. Being interested in considering ideas that fluctuate from one’s own is basic to learning. Subsequently, tenderly reassuring liberality is useful in connecting with the theory of learning. Additionally, it is imperative, therefore, that new data be pertinent and identified with existing knowledge.
“The structure and organisation of self-appears to become more rigid under threats and to relax its boundaries when completely free from threat.” (Rogers, 1951). In Rogers’ works we see on the off chance that learners trust that ideas are being constrained by them, they may get to be uncomfortable and dreadful. A hindrance is made by a manner of risk in the classroom. Along with these lines, an open, cordial environment in which trust is produced is the key in the classroom. The trepidation of requital for not concurring with an idea ought to be disposed of. A classroom tone of bolster reduces fears and urges learning to have the mettle to investigate ideas and convictions that shift from those they convey to the classroom. Additionally, new data may debilitate the learner’s idea of him or herself; in this way, the less helpless the learner feels, the more probable he or she will have the capacity to open up to the learning process.
“The educational situation which most effectively promotes significant learning is one in which (a) threat to the self of the learner is reduced to a minimum and (b) differentiated perception of the field is facilitated.” (Knowles, HoltonIII, & Swanson, 1998). The researcher sees that educator ought to be interested in gaining from the learner and furthermore attempting to interface the learning of the topic. Incessant connection with the learner will accomplish this objective. The educator’s acknowledgement of being a coach who directs as opposed to the master who advises is instrumental to learner focused, non-threatening, and unforced learning.
Rogerian logical approach
In 1970, Richard Young, Alton L. Becker, and Kenneth Pike distributed Rhetoric: Discovery and Change, a generally powerful school compose course book that utilised a Rogerian way to deal with correspondence to update the customary Aristotelian structure for a teaching and learning process. The Rogerian technique for argument includes every side restating the other’s position as per the general inclination of the other. In a paper, it can be communicated via painstakingly recognising and understanding the restriction, instead of rejecting them.
Diverse relations
The application of ‘diverse relations’ has included workshops in very unpleasant circumstances and worldwide areas incorporating clashes and challenges in South Africa, Central America, and Ireland. Along with Alberto Zucconi and Charles Devonshire, he helped to establish the Istituto dell’Approccio Centrato Sulla Persona (Person-Centered Approach Institute) in Rome, Italy.
His worldwide work for peace finished in the Rust Peace Workshop which occurred in November 1985 in Rust, Austria. Pioneers from 17 countries assembled to talk about the subject “The Central America Challenge”. The meeting was striking for a few reasons: it united national figures as individuals (not as their positions), it was a private occasion and was a mind-boggling constructive experience where individuals heard each other and set up genuine individual ties, instead of solidly formal and directed discretionary meetings.
Carl Rogers served on the leading group of the Human Ecology Fund from the late 50s into the 60s, which was a CIA subsidised association that gave awards to scientists investigating identity. He got cash also. Also, “he and other people in the field of personality and psychotherapy were given a lot of information about Khrushchev. ‘We were asked to figure out what we thought of him and what would be the best ‘way of dealing with him. And that seemed to be an entirely principled and legitimate aspect. I don’t think we contributed very much, but, anyway, we tried (Greenfield, 1977).’”
Hypothesis:
Rogers’ hypothesis and theory of the self are thought to be humanistic, existential, and phenomenological. His hypothesis is constructed straightforwardly in light of the “phenomenal field” identity hypothesis of (Boeree C. G., 1998). Rogers’ elaboration of his own hypothesis is broad. He composed 16 books and numerous more diary articles portraying it. Prochaska and Norcross (2003) states Rogers “consistently stood for an empirical evaluation of psychotherapy. He and his followers have demonstrated a humanistic approach to conducting therapy and a scientific approach to evaluating therapy need not be incompatible.” (Wilson, 2011)
Nineteen suggestions
His hypothesis (starting 1951) depended on 19 propositions:
1. All people (life forms) exist in a constantly changing universe of experience (amazing field) of which they are the inside.
2. The life form responds to the field as it is experienced and saw. This perceptual field is “reality” for the person.
3. The life form responds as a sorted out entire to this remarkable field.
4. A part of the aggregate perceptual field bit by bit gets to be separated as the self.
5. As an aftereffect of connection with nature, and especially as a consequence of evolutional cooperation with others, the structure of the self is framed – a composed, a liquid yet predictable calculated example of an impression of qualities and connections of the “I” or the “me”, together with qualities appended to these ideas.
6. The creature has one essential inclination and endeavouring – to complete, keep up and upgrade the encountering life form.
7. The best vantage point for comprehension conduct is from the inward edge of reference of the person.
8. Behaviour is fundamentally the objective guided endeavour of the living being to fulfil its needs as experienced, in the field as saw.
9. Emotion goes with, and when all is said in done encourages, such objective coordinated conduct, the sort of feeling being identified with the apparent hugeness of the conduct for the upkeep and upgrade of the living being.
10. The qualities appended to encounters, and the qualities that are a part of the self-structure, on a few occasions, are qualities experienced specifically by the life form, and in a few examples are qualities introjected or assumed control from others, yet saw in a twisted manner, as though they had been experienced straightforwardly.
11. As encounters happen in the life of the individual, they are either, a) symbolized, saw and composed into some connection to the self, b) overlooked in light of the fact that there is no apparent relationship to the self-structure, c) denied symbolization or given misshaped symbolization in light of the fact that the experience is conflicting with the structure of the self.
12. Most of the methods for carrying on that are embraced by the creature are those that are predictable with the idea of self.
13. In a few cases, conduct might be achieved by natural encounters and needs which have not been symbolised. Such conduct might be conflicting with the structure of the self yet in such examples the conduct is not “claimed” by the person.
14. Psychological conformity exists when the idea of the self is such that all the tactile and instinctive encounters of the life form are, or might be, absorbed on a typical level into a reliable association with the idea of self.
15. Psychological maladjustment exists when the living being precludes mindfulness from claiming huge tangible and instinctive encounters, which therefore are not symbolised and composed into the gestalt of the self-structure. At the point when this circumstance exists, there is an essential or potential mental pressure.
16. Any experience which is conflicting with the association of the structure of the self might be seen as a risk, and a greater amount of these observations there are, the all the more unbendingly the self-structure is sorted out to look after itself.
17. Under certain conditions, including essentially finish nonattendance of danger to the self-structure, encounters which are conflicting with it might be seen and inspected, and the structure of self-updated to absorb and incorporate such encounters.
18. When the individual sees and acknowledges into one steady and incorporated framework all his tangible and instinctive encounters, then he is essentially additionally comprehension of others and is all the more tolerating of others as isolated people.
19. As the individual sees and acknowledges into his self-structure a greater amount of his natural encounters, he finds that he is supplanting his present worth framework – construct widely in light of introjections which have been distortedly symbolised – with a proceeding with the organismic esteeming process.
Also, Rogers is known for rehearsing “unequivocal constructive respect,” which is characterised as tolerating a man “without negative judgment of …. [a person’s] essential worth.” (Barry, 2002)
Development of the Personality:
As for improvement, Rogers depicted standards instead of stages. The principle issue is the advancement of a self-idea and the advancement from an undifferentiated self to being completely separated.
Self-Concept
… the organised consistent conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of ‘I’ or ‘me’ and the perceptions of the relationships of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ to others and to various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these perceptions. It is a gestalt which is available to awareness though not necessarily in awareness. It is a fluid and changing gestalt, a process, but at any given moment it is a specific entity.(Rogers C. , 1959)
In the advancement of the self-idea, he saw contingent and unequivocal positive view as ‘key’. Those brought up in a domain of definite positive respect have the chance to completely realise themselves. Those brought up in a situation of restrictive positive respect feel commendable just in the event that they coordinate conditions (what Rogers depicts as conditions of worth) that have been set down for them by others.
Fully functioning person:
“Optimal development, referred to below in proposition 14, results in a certain process rather than static state. Rogers describes this as the good life, where the organism continually aims to fulfil its full potential.” (Pyc15)
He listed the characteristics of a fully functioning person as follows:
1. A developing openness to encounter – they move far from protectiveness and have no requirement for subception (a perceptual guard that includes unwittingly applying techniques to keep an alarming jolt from entering cognizance).
2. A progressively existential way of life – living every minute completely – not misshaping the minute to fit identity or self-idea, however, permitting identity and self-idea to exude from the experience. This outcome in fervour, brave, versatility, resistance, suddenness and an absence of inflexibility and proposes an establishment of trust. “To open one’s spirit to what is going on now, and discover in that present process whatever structure it appears to have”. (Rogers C. , 1961, p. 189)
3. Increasing organismic trust – they believe their own judgment and their capacity to pick conduct that is fitting for every minute. They don’t depend on existing codes and social standards yet assume that as they are interested in encounters they will have the capacity to believe their own feeling of good and bad.
4. Freedom of decision – not being shackled by the confinements that impact an incongruent individual, they can settle on a more extensive scope of decisions all the more easily. They trust that they assume a part in deciding their own particular conduct thus feel in charge of their own conduct.
5. Creativity – it takes after that they will feel all the more liberated to be imaginative. They will likewise be more innovative in the way they adjust to their own particular circumstances without feeling a need to accommodate.
6. Reliability and productivity – they can be trusted to act valuably. A person who is interested in everything their needs will have the capacity to keep up a harmony between them. Indeed, even forceful needs will be coordinated and adjusted by inherent goodness incompatible people.
7. A rich full life – he depicts the life of the completely working individual as rich, full and energising and proposes that they encounter euphoria and agony, adoration and shock, trepidation and bravery all the more seriously. Rogers’ depiction of the great life:
This process of the good life is not, I am convinced, a life for the faint-hearted. It involves the stretching and growing of becoming more and more of one’s potentialities. It involves the courage to be. It means launching oneself fully into the stream of life. (Rogers C. , 1961, p. 420)
Incongruence
Rogers distinguished the “genuine self” as the part of one’s being that is established in the completing inclination, takes after organismic esteeming, needs and gets positive respect and self-respect. Then again, to the degree that our general public is out of sync with the completing inclination, and we are compelled to live with states of worth that are out of a venture with organismic esteeming, and get just restrictive positive respect and self-respect, we create rather a ‘perfect self’. By perfect, Rogers is proposing something not genuine, something that is constantly out of our achieve, the standard we can’t meet. This crevice between the genuine self and the perfect self, the ‘I am’ and the ‘I ought to’ is called confusion.
Psychopathology
Rogers portrayed the ideas of coinciding and incongruence as imperative thoughts in his hypothesis. In suggestion number 6, he alludes to the completing inclination. In the meantime, he perceived the requirement for positive respect. In a completely consistent individual understanding, their potential is not to the detriment of encountering positive respect. They can lead experience that is valid and real. Incongruent people, in their quest for constructive respect, a lead experience that incorporates falseness and doesn’t understand their potential. Conditions put on them by people around them make it vital for them to do without their veritable, genuine lives to meet with the endorsement of others. They lead experience that is not consistent with themselves, to who they are on the back to front.
The researcher finds that Rogers recommended the incongruent person, who is dependable on the edge and can’t be interested in all encounters, who is not working preferably and might even be failing. They buckle down at keeping up/ensuring their self-idea. Since their lives are not true this is a troublesome assignment and they are under steady risk. They send barrier components to accomplish this. He portrays two systems: contortion and dissent. Contortion or Bending happens when the individual sees a risk to their self-idea. They misshape the recognition until it fits their self-idea.
This cautious conduct decreases the awareness of the risk yet not the danger itself. Thus as the dangers mount, the work of ensuring the self-idea turns out to be more troublesome and the individual turns out to be more protective and unbending in their self-structure. In the event that the incongruence is extreme, this procedure might lead the person to a state that would normally be depicted as a hypochondriac. Their working becomes shaky and they become mentally defenceless. On the off chance that the circumstance compounds it is conceivable that the guards stop to capacity out and the individual gets to be mindful of the incongruence of their circumstance. Their identity becomes muddled and odd; silly conduct, connected with prior precluded viewpoints from claiming self, might surface wildly.
The researcher has discovered the examination issue from the investigation of past Research regarding Instructor and Learner with ‘learning’ at the centre of the research. In the wake of considering the examination which was done previously, the researcher found that instruction is a key idea for the famous educationists and social reformers, their reasoning acquires change the entire arrangement of training in light of the fact that reasoning has its own particular force and perception.
“The organism has one basic tendency and striving – to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism.” (Rogers C. , 1951, p. 487)
There is a decent arrangement of examination done in the past on instructive scholar Rogers, in which the researcher has inspected their points, system, educational program, part of the instructor, part of learning and their contemporary importance. Yet, there is very little research work done in the field of ‘instructive psychology’ and an ‘individual therapist’.
In the present study, the researcher has considered this matter and chose Carl Rogers’ judiciously and thoroughly considering some of his works. Carl Rogers was a prominent American therapist. In the present exploration work.
The title of this study is:
“SEARCHING FOR EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVES FROM THE ANALYSIS OF CARL ROGERS’ SELECTED WORKS”
The Researcher has selected three books of Carl R. Rogers:
In the present research work, Researcher tried to study Carl Rogers’ selected works and derive its educational messages at four broad levels. – Psychological, Philosophical, Sociological and Counselling level (Guiding Level or Instruction Level).
It is essential and necessary to define certain key words used in the problem because in Education, Educational Psychology, Sociology as well as Philosophy the same word can be defined or viewed in different ways. So by defining the terms, we specify its meaning in the present research work.
SEARCHING: -Adjective
Try to discover something by looking painstakingly and completely.
Here, in this examination “Looking” means precisely and altogether examination of Carl Rogers’ chosen works.
EDUCATIONAL – Adjective
Here, in this research – the word educational is connected with the field of education at a philosophical, sociological, psychological and counselling level for deriving messages from selected works.
PERSPECTIVES: Noun
Here, in this research – (philosophical, sociological, psychological and counselling) four educational perspectives are taken into account for deriving educational messages.
ANALYSIS: Noun
Here, in this research, the selected books of Carl Rogers’s analysed through qualitative method.
Carl Ransom Rogers (Personal Life)
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was an American psychologist and the founder of the Humanistic Approach to Psychology. Rogers is widely considered to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honoured for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished scientific contributions by the American Psychological Association in 1956.
Carl Rogers was born January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago, the fourth of six children. His father was a successful civil engineer and his mother was a housewife and devout Christian. His education started in the second grade because he could already read before kindergarten.
When Carl was 12, his family moved to a farm about 30 miles west of Chicago, and it was here that he was to spend his adolescence. With a strict upbringing and many chores, Carl was to become rather isolated, independent, and self-disciplined.
He went on to study at the University of Wisconsin for an agriculture major. Later, he switched to religion to study for the ministry. During this time, he was selected as one of ten students to go to Beijing for the “World Student Christian Federation Conference” for six months. He tells us that his new experiences so broadened his thinking that he began to doubt some of his basic religious views.
After graduation, he married Helen Elliot (against his parents’ wishes), moved to New York City, and began attending the Union Theological Seminary, a famous liberal religious institution. While there, he took a student organised seminar called “Why am I entering the ministry? I might as well tell you that, unless you want to change your career, never take a class with such a title! He tells us that most of the participants thought their way right out of religious work.” (Boeree D. C., 2006)
Religion’s loss was, of course, psychology’s gain: Rogers switched to the clinical psychology program at Columbia University and received his PhD in 1931. He had already begun his clinical work at the Rochester Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. At this clinic, he learned about Otto Rank’s theory and therapy techniques, which started him on the road to developing his own approach.
He was offered a full professorship at Ohio State in 1940. In 1942, he wrote his first book, Counselling and Psychotherapy. Then, in 1945, he was invited to set up a counselling centre at the University of Chicago. It was while working there that in 1951 he published his major work, Client-Centred Therapy, wherein he outlines his basic theory.
In 1957, he returned to teach at his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin. Unfortunately, it was a time of conflict within their psychology department, and Rogers became very disillusioned with higher education. In 1964, he was happy to accept a research position in La Jolla, California. He provided therapy, gave speeches, and wrote, until his death in 1987.
Carl R. Rogers’ selected works
1. On Becoming a Person (1961/1995 Houghton Mifflin Company Boston / New York), On Becoming a Person, in which Carl Rogers claimed that people have their own resources for healing and personal growth. Rogers introduced the concepts of congruence, empathic understanding, acceptance, and unconditional positive regard into the therapeutic environment to enhance the outcome for clients. He encouraged counsellors to demonstrate each of these aspects in order to help the client gain insight, recognise feelings, express self-concept, and achieve self-acceptance and self-actualization. (Goodtherapy.org, 2013)
2. A Way of Being (1985 Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston / New York) A Way of Being was written in the early 1980s, near the end of Carl Rogers’ career, and serves as a coda to his classic On Becoming a Person. More philosophical than his earlier writings, it traces his professional and personal development and ends with a prophetic call for a more humane future.
The researcher has selected above mentioned three works of Carl Rogers for investigation. The researcher has derived educational messages (from three works) from selected works of Carl Rogers by following a particular method or approach.
In this report, there are total six chapters. Planning of the same is as follows:
The introductory chapter serves to give an idea of ‘why’ aspect of this research. The rationale, definition of the terms, objectives, research questions, the scope of the study, and significance of the study has been placed in this chapter.
The next chapter will deal with the theoretical foundations of the study.
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CHAPTER – II
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
CHAPTER – II
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
2. Introduction
A research needs a study of some key concepts and concerns which are the backbone of the whole work. The researcher believes that it provides necessary orientations for an effective interpretation of the study. The theoretical foundation of the present study encompasses these things: Meaning of Psychology, Branches of Psychology or (Classification of Psychology), Meaning, Nature and scope of educational psychology, the relationship between Psychology and Education, Schools of Psychology, Theories of learning, and Humanistic School of psychology.
2.1 Meaning of Psychology
The word ‘Psychology’ is originally built of two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. ‘Psyche’ means soul and later on, it stood for the ‘mind’. ‘Logos’ means a ‘Word’ or ‘Talk’ about or ‘Study For’. Thus by derivation Psychology means a “talk about soul,” or the science of the soul.
Psychology is the science of behaviour. The psychology seeks to understand and explain how and why we behave. It tries to tell us how we feel, think and act, in a specific way. It studies the conditions that underlie behaviour and the phenomenon of its modification.
Psychology is the study of behaviour and mind, embracing all aspects of human experience. It is an academic discipline and an applied science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases. (Psychology, n.d.)
The researcher finds that in the 18th century, psychology was understood as the ‘Science of Mind’. William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind’ is also quite ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of the mind.
2.2 Branches of Psychology or (Classification of Psychology)
Psychologists discover, organise, and interpret facts about the behaviour of organisms in their mental aspects. Psychology may, therefore, be defined as a body of data and verifiable laws regarding the mental phases of organic life. The science of psychology includes the following principal divisions.
2.3 Educational psychology-Meaning, Nature and Scope:
2.3.1 Meaning of Educational Psychology
Educational Psychology is one of the many branches of Psychology dealing mainly with the problems, processes and products of education. It is an attempt to apply the knowledge of psychology in the field of education. Here we try to study human behaviour, particularly the behaviour of the learner in relation to his educational environment. In other words, Educational Psychology may be defined as that branch of psychology which studies the behaviour of the learner in relation to his educational needs and his environment. Educational Psychology has been defined by various Psychologists and scholars. Some of the important definitions are given below-
(Krishna & Rao, 2004)
Skinner (1958)
Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with teaching and learning.
Crow and Crow (1973)
Educational psychology describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual from birth through old age.
Anderson
“Educational psychology is a subject to be studied, an area or field of knowledge, a set of applications of ideas and principles from a field of knowledge to social process, a set of tool and techniques, and a field of research while General Psychology is a pure science, Educational Psychology is its application in the field of education with the aim of socializing man and modifying his behaviour.”
In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they learn and their social relationships.”
Encyclopaedia of Educational Research
‘Educational Psychology is the study of learner and of the learning –teaching process in its various branches directed toward helping the child to come to terms with society with a maximum of security and satisfaction.
2.3.2 Nature of Educational psychology
Educational Psychology is a branch and an integral part of psychology, its temperament can’t be the same as the principle subject. The accompanying focuses affirm the way of Educational Psychology as science.
(1) Educational Psychology has an all-around sorted out, precise and generally acknowledged group of actualities bolstered by the significant mental laws and standards.
(2) It is continually looking for truth, i.e. examining the conduct of the learner in connection to his instructive surroundings.
(3) It utilises exploratory systems and receives an experimental methodology for concentrating on the learner’s conduct.
(4) The procedures and results of these studies are adequately investigative as a high level of consistent practicality, objectivity, unwavering quality and legitimacy are kept up in completing the study and look into in the field of Educational Psychology.
(5) Educational Psychology does not acknowledge noise and does not underestimate anything.
(6) Educational Psychology is, for the most part, worried with the “what” and the “why” of happenings in the present as opposed to nurturing past. In this way, in its study, it centres consideration on an issue such as the present conduct of the learner, the reasons for such conduct, and the repercussions if it somehow managed to proceed unaltered.
(7) It is a positive science instead of a standardising science and like the sciences, it doesn’t worry about qualities and beliefs.
W.A. Kelly (1941) listed the nature of Educational Psychology as follows: (Srikanth, 2015)
Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While general science deals with the behaviour of the individuals in various spheres, educational psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in an educational sphere only.
2.3.3 Scope of Educational psychology:
The degree of the subject recommends its field of study. Talking specifically terms, it infers the regions of study that are fused into a particular subject.
The degree of Educational Psychology is securing more foremost and more conspicuous essentialness in the field of direction. Educational mind science is the mix of two i.e. Informational and Psychology. So Educational mind exploration is the examination of the behaviour of the instructor, taught and persons joined with the informative environment. Enlightening mind science is, thusly, that branch of educational substance, which oversees human behaviour and its alteration.
The going with are joined into the degree of Educational Psychology.
(1) Human Behaviour:
It considers human behaviour in informational circumstances. Mind exploration is the examination of behaviour and preparing deals with the adjustment of behaviour and from now on, informational cerebrum research attacks in the whole field of preparing.
(2) Growth and Development:
It contemplates improvement and headway of the child. How a child experiences diverse periods of advancement and what are the traits of each stage are joined into the examination of Educational Psychology.
(3) Learning Process:
It focuses on the law of learning: learning is an important marvel in the guideline. It thinks how learning can happen most enough and monetarily.
(4) Heredity and Environment:
Whatever degree heredity and environment contribute towards the advancement of the individual and how this data can be used for understanding the perfect change of the child, outline a surprising part of the degree of Educational Psychology.
(5) Personality:
Informative Psychology deals with the nature and headway of the personality of a man. Honestly, the direction has been portrayed as an all-around progression of the character of an individual; personality change similarly recommends an adjusted character.
(6) Individual Difference:
Each individual varies from another and it is one of the crucial certainties of human instinct, which has been brought to light by Educational Psychology. This one certainly has upset the idea and procedure of training.
(7) Intelligence and its Measurement:
The extent of Educational Psychology incorporates the investigation of the way of knowledge and its estimation. This is of extraordinary significance for an instructor or a teacher.
(8) Guidance and Counselling:
This is a standout amongst the most imperative fields or ranges of study incorporated into the field of Educational Psychology. Instruction is only giving direction to the developing child. Along these lines, direction shapes an imperative part of Educational Psychology.
The accompanying five zones were named by American Psychological Associations:
(1) Human development and advancement, including the impact of heredity and environment on different parts of person,
(2) Learning: The nature of learning procedure, components affecting the learning process and so forth.
(3) Personality and alteration: It incorporate numerous sub-points, for example, psychological well-being of the students and instructors character,
(4) Measurement and assessment, insights,
(5) Techniques and routines for Educational Psychology.
Along these lines, Educational Psychology depicts and clarifies the taking in the experience of a person from conception to maturity. Its topic is worried about the conditions that influence learning.
2.4 Relationship between Education and Psychology
Education and Psychology are correlated subjects. Psychology is a broader area in which education searches to give a practical shape of the psychology findings in the teaching-learning situation. For a detailed study of both the subject, we first must explore the meaning of psychology and education.
The word ‘psychology’ has been derived from two Greek words ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’ which means ‘study of soul’. But this meaning was changed into ‘Mind’, ‘Consciousness’ and ‘Behaviour’.
J. B. Watson, the father of the behavioristic school of psychology, termed psychology as the ‘science of behaviour’. The meaning of education is a modification of behaviour for one’s adjustment. When we study the behaviour of the child and teacher in the educational situations, for solving educational problems, we take the help of educational psychology.
The role of the school is to help in a harmonious development of the personality of the child. So it becomes the duty and task of the teacher to guide child according to psychological norms. Therefore, for every teacher study of psychology is an essential item. So we can say that educational psychology is the application of psychology and its principles in educational situations.
According to Skinner, “Educational psychology covers the entire range of behaviour and personality as related to education.”
There is an inner link between education and psychology.
The relationship between Education and Psychology:
(1) Psychology and points of instruction:
The points of instruction can be settled by taking the assistance of Psychology changes of the child. So the necessities, interest, inclination and demeanour are the markers for arranging any action for training.
(2) Psychology and educational programs:
At the season of educational programs arranging and development, appropriate consideration ought to be taken for the improvement rate of the child. So they are corresponding during the time spent instruction.
(3) Psychology and systems:
An educator needs to give directions through various techniques, which ought to be connected with mental issues, needs and advancement of the youngster.
(4) Psychology and assessment:
The aggregate procedure of assessment and examination ought to be connected with mental standards. Inquiries ought to be arranged taking the ordinary advancement of the youngsters.
(5) Psychology and discipline:
The issues of order can be checked through legitimate mental methods. It additionally checks diverse behavioural issues of the youngsters.
(6) Psychology and organisation:
The procedure of organisation ought to be founded on the mental strategies. In an organisation, legitimate consideration ought to be given on the premise of individual contrasts.
(7) Psychology and instructor:
Instructor ought to be an expert in Psychology to manage a complex instructive circumstance. Instructing is a craftsmanship thus he ought to know diverse procedures of psychology with a specific end goal to tackle distinctive issues of the youngsters.
(8) Psychology and timetable, reading material arrangement:
On the premise of the mental procedure the educational modules labourers, instructors, chairmen get readily suitable timetable as indicated by the premium, time, suitability, nearby state of the learners. Additionally while getting ready course readings he should consider the estimation of mental needs, limits and improvement of the learner.
Hence, both psychology and instruction have a close connection with one another. Pestalozzi additionally said that, psychology projects training. Each educator ought to take in the child Psychology before instructing.
2.5 Schools of Psychology
The research scholar believes that the study of Carl Rogers also requires that we take a look at the schools of psychology to get an insider’s opinion on the matters. Psychology is the investigation of the human personality. In spite of the fact that the real schools of thought in Psychology are all inspired by how the human personality functions, they approach this subject in various ways. A few therapists are worried about conduct; others concentrate on the interior battles that go ahead inside individuals’ brains, while different psychologists study individuals’ surroundings. There are numerous schools of psychologists yet we will say here just those which have impacted or helped instructive psychology in accomplishing its point and goals.
These schools were:
(1) Structuralism,
(2) Functionalism
(3) Behaviourism,
(4) Gestalt psychology
(5) Hormic School
(6) Psychoanalysis
(7) Humanist Psychology
(8) Transpersonal Psychology
(9) Stimulus-Response School
(10) Cognitive Psychology
Structuralism became out of the work of Wundt, and his student Titchner. These psychologists trusted the superior reason for psychology was to discover the units, or the components, which make up the psyche. Wundt suggested that psychology ought to concentrate on breaking down the substance of awareness so as to decide its essential components and the relationship between them, his fundamental study was in prompt cognizance. Both Titchner and Wundt believed that ‘Immediate Consciousness’ has extraordinary significance to comprehend ‘mind’. Furthermore, this experience of prompt cognizance is similar to “Experience of Awareness” or we can say that Awareness is the piece of quick cognizance. Also, for this, the strategy utilised, was a reflection.
For thoughtfulness, we require a Subject (a man) who function as an Observer and can feel as ‘why is personality a primary concern?’ in light of any enhancements. Furthermore, he can tell that all in the Verbal report. For instance on the off chance that somebody says “I am eager” means around then “I’m introspecting”. Titchener called the Introspection as ‘Self Observation’. The principle objective of psychology was to comprehend the structure of the psyche. Consequently, this idea was marked as “Structuralism”.
Structuralism assumed a huge part in conditioning the field of psychology amid its developmental years. Wundt and his supporters built up psychology as an autonomous trial science and their accentuation on experimental strategies for request remains a key part of the order today. But the structuralists couldn’t escape feedback. Notwithstanding their honourable endeavour at the exploratory examination, thoughtfulness was not as much as perfect in light of the fact that no two persons see the same thing in the very same way. Subject’s reports accordingly had a tendency to be subjective and clashing. A percentage of the fiercest reactions of structuralism originated from the individuals as William James, one of the main advocates of the functionalist point of view.
2.5.1.1 Its Contribution to Education
1. Structuralism aided in building up psychology as a free and composed order by isolating it from theory and mysticism.
2. It gave reflection as a strategy for examining conduct. In spite of far-reaching feedback, reflection is still viewed as one of the vital strategies for concentrating on conduct. What goes ahead inside one’s brain over the span of a psychological demonstration can be experienced or clarified just by the individual himself, and reflection is the main suitable strategy that can be utilised in extracting such reports. Subsequently, things about Educational Psychology can profit by the utilisation of this technique.
3. Structuralism is credited with having taken the activity in setting up the primary psychological research facility and utilising the method of efficient perception of the exercises of the psyche. It has brought about making psychology a subject of exploratory study and experimentation. What we discover today in the field of psychology and instructive psychology as far as lab and also field analyses can then securely be asserted as a positive commitment to the school of structuralism.
2.5.2 Functionalism:
Functionalism was founded by William James in reaction to Structuralism. Functionalism asserts that psychology should be concerned with the functions, or purposes, of human behaviour. This school of thought expanded upon structuralism by encouraging psychologists not to limit their study to introspection. Instead, functionalists believed that behaviour can also be attributed to child rearing, education, work environment and behaviour.
Structuralism was soon challenged by William James and some other psychologist who felt that their new field shouldn’t focus on the structure of consciousness but on its Functions. James was interested in understanding the mental process of “Adaptation”; the process that helped the humans (and animals also) adapt to their environment. James said that psychology should concern with not only what the mind is made of but also how and why it works as it does. Because of his practical emphasis on the functional-practical nature of mind, the concept of psychology became accepted and widespread.
Functionalism.
Functionalism was strongly influenced by Darwin’s theory, the theory of natural selection. (Only those species will survive which have the strong will / desire to survive, or the species which have the power to fight with the natural problems, or cope up the problems in their survival. And those characteristics, which helped in the survival of the species, are passed on from one generation to next generation.)
The Principles, which was recognised at once as both definitive and innovating in its field, established the functional point of view in psychology. It assimilated mental science to the biological disciplines and treated thinking and knowledge as instruments in the struggle to live. (Kallen, 2016)
The researcher finds that ‘consciousness’ is uniquely a human characteristic. James emphasised the purpose of consciousness. He felt that consciousness must have some biological use or else it would not survive. Its function is to make the human being a better-adapted animal. Functionalism also used the method of Introspection as a tool. Functionalism covered some mental processes like – Learning, Perceiving, Memory, Thinking, and Personality.
2.5.2.1 Functionalism: Contribution to Education
As the research scholar understands Functionalism, which is viewed as an experimental and more common sense supported arrangement of psychology than structuralism, helped in making the arrangement of training as practicable and valuable as could be expected under the circumstances by the accompanying commitment:
Structuralism focused on immediate mental experience. Titchener often stated that he was only concerned with the ‘is,’ and that he left the ‘is for’ to others. Essentially, he was stating that he was only concerned with facts and that to ask the question ‘is for?’ was to delve into speculation, something that Titchener personally detested. He believed that for psychology to be accepted as a science, it needed to focus on facts. (Fritz, 2015)
1. It laid accentuation on the capacity of the substance of the educational programs by supporting that just those things ought to be taught to the child which they could apply in ordinary life.
2. The strategies and procedures of learning were made more capacity capable through the thoughts engendered by this framework. Functionalists like Dewey felt that the prominence of training and showing techniques ought not to be on the topic but rather on the requirements of the students. Such learner-focused methodologies in the strategies for instructing opened the route for the revelation of new techniques and gadgets in the showing learning process.
3. This framework extended the extent of psychology and instructive psychology by building up an assortment of new strategies past reflection for contemplating conduct essentially in light of experimental enquiry, precise information including so as to gather and target translation and in its circle the investigation of numerous helpful themes not secured by structuralism.
Titchener strongly advocated for psychology as a science and therefore believed it was imperative to classify the components of thought; after all, science deals with facts, not theories. He reasoned that if a thought, like ‘this is an apple,’ is a collection of elements, those elements or sensations should be identifiable. Much of his work focused on sensations, and he concluded that there are over 40,000 sensations that comprise thought, primarily related to vision and hearing. (Fritz, 2015)
Behaviourism was introduced in 1913 by John B. Watson, an American psychologist. Watson and his followers believed that observable behaviour, not inner experience, was the only reliable source of information. This concentration on observable events was a reaction against the structuralists’ emphasis on introspection. The behaviourists also stressed the importance of the environment in shaping an individual’s behaviour. They chiefly looked for connections between observable behaviour and stimuli from the environment.
Behaviourism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behaviour. Only behaviour that could be observed, recorded and measured was of any real value for the study of humans or animals. Watson’s thinking was significantly influenced by the earlier classical conditioning experiments of Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his now infamous dogs. (Gilles, 2015)
The behaviourist movement was greatly influenced by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov. In a famous study, Pavlov rang a bell each time he gave a dog some food; the dog’s mouth would water when the animal smelled the food. After Pavlov repeated the procedure many times, the dog’s saliva began to flow whenever the animal heard the bell, even if no food appeared. This experiment demonstrated that a reflex–such as the flow of saliva–can become associated with a stimulus other than the one that first produced it–in this case, the sound of a bell instead of the smell of food. The learning process by which a response becomes associated with a new stimulus is called conditioning.
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect – Reinforcement. Behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e. weakened). B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term ‘operant conditioning’; it means roughly changing of behaviour by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behaviour. (McLeod S. , Skinner – Operant Conditioning, 2015)
Watson and the other behaviourists realised that human behaviour could also be changed by conditioning. In fact, Watson believed he could produce almost any response by controlling an individual’s environment.
During the mid-1900’s, the American psychologist B. F. Skinner gained much attention for behaviourist ideas. B. F. Skinner became known for his studies of how rewards and punishments can influence behaviour. He believed that rewards, or positive reinforcements, cause the behaviour to be repeated. Skinner suggested that positive reinforcement is more effective in teaching new and better behaviour. In his book (Skinner, 1976), Skinner describes how the principles of conditioning might be applied to create an ideal planned society. The community encourages its members “to view every habit and custom with an eye to possible improvement” and to have “a constantly experimental attitude toward everything.”
2.5.3.1 Its Contribution to Education
1. Behaviourism presented the investigative strategy for considering conduct, which is basically taking into account the target perception of the conduct and the occasions. Behaviourism accordingly assisted in supplanting thoughtful measures with the experimental and target measures.
2. Behaviourists, while giving second place to inherited attributes, highlighted the part of the environment in forming and adjusting the conduct of the child. It helped in reforming every one of the projects and techniques identified with instruction, preparing and recovery by underlining a more noteworthy need to give an ideal learning circumstances and environment for better development and advancement of the child.
3. The way to deal with managing unusual and rationally wiped out persons and additionally reprobate, maladjusted, in reverse and issue youngsters was likewise definitely changed by virtue of the trial discoveries of the behaviourists. Specifically, the method of conditioning conduct and the conduct change programs pushed by the behaviourists introduced new period into this field.
4. Since behaviourists did not put stock in elements such as the “brain” and the psyche-body issue, the mental way to deal with human conduct was out and out disposed of! Subsequently, all ideas identified with the principle of mentalism such as sensation, feeling, recognition were dropped from psychology and instruction writings, offering an approach to new ideas such as a jolt, reaction, propensities, learning, and conditioning.
5. Behaviourism aided in amplifying the extent of instructive psychology to incorporate the investigation of creatures as an approach to take in more about human instinct.
6. Behaviourism upheld the utilisation of support and compensates as prompting for the securing of alluring conduct and for surrendering the undesirable.
7. Behaviourism highlighted the part of inspiration and meaning of the points and purposes in learning and forming of conduct.
8. Behaviourism offered to ascend to new thoughts and advancements in the field of learning and guideline like customised learning and individualised self-instructional projects including showing machines and PC helped direction.
2.5.4 Gestalt psychology:
The research scholar emphatically includes Gestalt psychology as one of the most influential psychology theories. Gestalt psychology, like behaviourism, developed as a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt psychologists believed that human beings and other animals perceive the external world as an organised pattern, not as individual sensations. For example, a film consists of thousands of individual still pictures, but we see what looks like smooth, continuous movement. The German word Gestalt means pattern, form, or shape. Unlike the behaviourists, the Gestaltists believed that behaviour should be studied as an organised pattern rather than as separate incidents of stimulus and response. The familiar saying “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts” expresses an important principle of the Gestalt movement.
‘Gestalt’ is a psychology term which means “unified whole”. It refers to theories of visual perception developed by German psychologists in the 1920s. These theories attempt to describe how people tend to organise visual elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied: Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern. Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern. Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move through one object and continue to another object. Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or space is not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is indicated, people perceive the whole by filling in the missing information.
(The Gestalt Principles, 2014)
Gestalt psychology was founded in Germany around 1912. Max Wertheimer, a German psychologist, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka were the founders of this school. During the 1930’s, Wertheimer and two colleagues took the Gestalt movement to the United States. This school’s contribution is in the field of learning, creative thinking and insight etc. Work of Köhler gave birth to the theory of Insight learning.
2.5.4.1 Its Contribution to Education
1. Gestaltists kept up that the entire is constantly more noteworthy than its constituents or parts. This suggestion impacts the field of training in numerous angles as we now examine.
a) In the commitment and association of the educational module and syllabi, the due thought is being given to the gestalt guideline. The concerned topic of a specific topic of a specific topic is constantly sorted out in general and the educational programs containing distinctive subjects and exercises is so confined as to reflect solidarity and cohesiveness among them.
b) Stress is being laid on a between disciplinary methodology in training.
c) The gestalt approach has been appropriately recognised in strategy and strategies of instructing and learning. This has brought about displaying the learning material in a gestalt structure and after that procedure to the parts.
d) Due weight on the gestalt endeavours with respect to educators, heads, folks and another individual from society is being laid in the training and welfare of youngsters.
Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. (Gestalt psychology, 2014)
1. Gestaltists laid extraordinary accentuation on the part of the inspiration, and unmistakable objectives and purposes in a realising .this have brought about giving a focal part to inspiration in any plan of learning and training. The accentuation on setting obvious destinations, characterising them in clear behavioural terms and connecting instruction with the necessities and intentions of the learner might be said to be a percentage of the considerable commitment of Gestalt psychology.
2. Gestaltism has an eminent element that it makes the assignment of observation, learning and critical thinking a keen undertaking as opposed to a piecemeal atomic capacity or an insignificant boost –response mechanical procedure. It has given a logical and dynamic strategy for critical thinking in view of subjective capacities of the learner.
2.5.5 Hormic School:
(It is also known as ‘purposivism’. This school is strongly opposed to the mechanistic or behavioristic point of view. It regards man as a unit but also as a purposive, striking organism McDougall was the most profound of this school. It is called Hormic because it emphasises on ‘home’, ‘striving’, or ‘urge to do something.’ Every activity of human being has got certain purpose and motivation. This school believes in this theory.) It is based on three basic facts,
(1) Behaviour is always purposive,
(2) Every individual has got instincts, and
(3) Total behaviour is influenced by instincts, sensation and interests.
Hormic School / Purposive Psychology
McDougall is the more profound of the Hormic Theory. The term ‘Hormic’ is derived from the Greek word Horm – which means ’an urge for action’. The purpose is the central concept of Hormic Psychology.
Nobody can dispute the fact of human purpose. Voluntary actions of men may be purposive. But McDougall asserts that every action of an animal is purposive; even instinctive actions are instinctive. Each animal species is so constituted that it naturally seeks to realise certain goals, which satisfy its needs. These organic needs & the tendencies to satisfy them by trying to realise certain goals [e.g. food, shelter & mate] – are inborn and common to all members of the species. Hence, they are called Instinctive. The man also inherits certain propensities natural to the species, which are also called Instincts. McDougall calls them ”Psycho-physical Dispositions”. These are the primary motives of all their strife. Intelligence is subservient to instincts. It supplies the means for the natural goals of instincts. McDougall explains behaviour in terms of striving for goal or purpose. He explains experience also in terms of ‘Goal-seeking’.
There are 02 types of Purposive Psychology:
Hedonistic Psychology: It asserts that the true goal of all strife is pleasure; that we always strive to attain a foreseen pleasure and avoid a foreseen pain; that we desire such things as food, shelter, rest etc. Only for the sake of pleasure which we shall desire from them. This is a pleasure – pain theory of action – generally called Psychological Hedonism.
Hormic Psychology: It rejects Psychological Hedonism and keeps up that the indulgent hypothesis is false. We truly want and take a challenging look at these articles, viewing them as inherently great and alluring. We yearn and look for either objective or items since we are constituted in that way. The fulfilment of the objective or item is generally suffused with a delight or fulfilment that blueprints the movement. Be that as it may, joy is never the objective or endeavouring or activity.
Hormic Psychology is hostile to behaviouristic. It is against behaviourism – which decreased to mechanical reaction to jolt. McDougall holds that conduct can’t be clarified with a reason. All conduct is purposive or teleological. It includes making progress toward an objective and supposing of foreknowledge of an objective.
McDougall concurs with the Gestaltists that sophisticated creatures learn by knowledge. Yet, he includes that premonition is likewise important for learning. Learning includes premonition and understanding. The creature predicts the accomplishment of the objective and the strides vital for the fulfilment of it. Thus he encounters something for the joy of accomplishment. The delight goes with the making of the fundamental development; and it fortifies, manages and empowers those developments. Consequently, premonition is important. Be that as it may, McDougall does not deny learning by trial and mistake. He perceives Two (02) types of learning:
Intelligent Learning involves achievement through insight and foresight or premonition.
McDougall was the example of this school of thought. As per him, every movement has a reason behind it and leads towards some improvement. Indeed, even youngsters attempt to develop. There is a point before us notwithstanding amid youth. Likewise, he focused on that every one of our practices is deliberate and objectively situated. We are constantly enlivened by inborn sentiment getting to be incredible and great. As indicated by him, a reaction is not generally on account of the event of a boost. A reaction might be a result of a rationale. It is a bit much that we feel the yearning of eating just when we take a glance at desserts. Longing to eat relies on craving. This is the rationale, which delivers the yearning to eat. Distinctive thought processes result in various reactions. The impulses invoke the human action. Every nature connected with a few feelings turns into the focal point of all exercises. Without them no action is conceivable.
Commitment to Education
According to him, a response is not always because of the occurrence of a stimulus. A response may be because of a motive. It is not necessary that we feel the desire of eating only when we look at sweets. (Unit-II Hormic School)
Being trained in the anatomy and physiology of the brain, McDougall actually attempted to formulate a psycho-physiological creed that could provide the literature with concepts and hypotheses to account for a wide range of psychological insights. Such a step represents probably an important turning point in the history of modern psychology. (Jusmani, 1969)
Quasi-mechanical Learning through trial & error.
In the 2nd kind of learning, also, there is striving towards a goal, and some satisfaction results from reaching the goal. If there were no striving & goal-seeking, more repetition of a movement sequence would not result in facilitation. Thus all kinds of learning — intelligent learning through insight & foresight and unintelligent learning through mere repetition are purposive.
McDougall regards personality as moulded by disposition, temperament & character.
Hormic Psychology is opposed to Associationism / Psychological Atonism – which regards the mind as a mosaic of discrete elements, sensations and ideas – connected with one another by the laws of association. Hormic Psychology is anti-intellectualistic. It is Psychology of Motivation. It emphasises “The Urge to Action” and regards the cognitive activity as subordinate to it.
Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of thought says that human behaviour is caused by the unconscious mind. Freud believed that unconscious mind is made up of three components: the Id, the Ego and the Superego. The Id, which people are born with, is only interested in satisfying desires and receiving pleasure. The Ego is also interested in gaining pleasure, but it’s the part of the unconscious mind that can reason and decide which desires are appropriate to act upon. The Superego, the moral centre of the unconscious mind, is concerned about the ‘right and wrong’.
Psychoanalysis was founded during the late 1800’s and early 1900’s by the Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behaviour is determined by powerful inner forces, According to Freud and other psychoanalysts, from early childhood people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society. The repressed feelings can cause personality disturbances, self-destructive behaviour, or even physical symptoms. Freud said that unconscious conflicts, usually related to sex or aggression, were prime motivators of human behaviour. He was the first person who includes the unconscious mind in a formal psychological theory. Freud believed that all behaviours -whether normal or abnormal -is influenced by psychological motives, often unconscious one. Freud’s ”Theory of Unconscious Mind” has a great value to understand the behaviour, especially abnormal behaviour.
2.5.6.1 Its Contribution to Education
1. It has given a decent strategy for the investigation of conduct.
2. It has given a decent treatment to treatment of emotional instability and strange conduct.
3. It has highlighted the significance of good instruction and a solid domain in the early years by underscoring the part of adolescence encounters.
4. Freud’s idea of the oblivious has helped in comprehension the reason for maladaptive conduct.
5. His highlighting on the part of sex in one’s life has drawn out the need of giving legitimate sex instruction to the child.
6. Freud’s arrangement of analysis has required the procurement of appropriate extracurricular exercises and suitable leisure activities and so forth. In the school developers for the arrival of stifled or obstructed vitality and confined emotions.
2.5.7 Humanist Psychology:
This new school of psychology mirrors the late patterns of humanism in psychology. Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, Arthur Combs, Gordon Allport and other prominent psychologists have added to its development. Humanistic Psychology gives more regard to the person by not thinking of him as only as an advanced machine or a casualty of the contention between the sense of self and the Id. It considered him as a deliberate being, fit for adjusting to his surroundings and picking his own strategy keeping in mind the end goal to accomplish the objectives which he has chosen for himself. These objectives might be as straightforward as the fulfilment of a typical physical need or as grand as the accomplishment of self-acknowledgment or individual satisfaction.
Humanistic psychology accentuates such particularly human parts of identity as the presence of choice and opportunity of decision and man’s quest for remarkable objectives and qualities to guide his conduct and to give an individual intending to his presence.
Humanistic psychologists believe that:
Humanistic psychology expanded its influence throughout the 1970s and the 1980s. Its impact can be understood in terms of three major areas:
1) It offered a new set of values for approaching an understanding of human nature and the human condition.
2) It offered an expanded horizon of methods of inquiry in the study of human behaviour.
3) It offered a broader range of more effective methods in the professional practice of psychotherapy.
(McLeod S. , Humanism, 2007, p. 2)
Both Rogers and Maslow regarded personal growth and fulfilment in life as a basic human motive. This means that each person, in different ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously enhance themselves. This has been captured by the term self-actualization, which is about psychological growth, fulfilment and satisfaction in life. However, Rogers and Maslow both describe different ways of how self-actualization can be achieved. (McLeod S. , Humanism, 2007, p. 1)
2.5.7.1 Principles of Humanistic Education
There are five fundamental standards of humanistic training:
1. Students ought to have the capacity to pick what they need to realise. Humanistic educators trust that students will be persuaded to take in a subject in the event that it’s something they need and need to know.
2. The objective of instruction ought to be to encourage students’ yearning to learn and show them how to learn. Students ought to act naturally roused in their studies and craving to learn all alone.
3. Humanistic teachers trust that evaluations are insignificant and that just self-assessment is significant. Reviewing urges students to work for an evaluation and not for individual fulfilment. Likewise, humanistic instructors are against target tests since they test a student’s capacity to retain and don’t give adequate instructive criticism to the educator and student.
4. Humanistic teachers trust that both emotions and information are essential to the learning process. Dissimilar to customary instructors, humanistic educators don’t isolate the intellectual and full of feeling spaces.
5. Humanistic teachers demand that schools need to furnish students with a non-debilitating environment so they will feel secure to learn. When students feel secure, learning gets to be less demanding and more significant.
Fig 2.1 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs retrieved from (Humanistic Psychology, 2015)
2.5.7.2 Summary
The five essential standards of humanistic training can be abridged as takes after:
1. Students’ learning ought to be naturally coordinated.
2. Schools ought to create students who need and know how to learn.
3. The main type of significant assessment is self-assessment.
4. Feelings, and in addition information, are critical in the learning process.
5. Students learn best in a non-debilitating environment.
2.5.8 Transpersonal Psychology:
Transpersonal Psychology is one of the most recent methodologies predominant in contemporary psychology. The work of Abraham Maslow as far as Self-completion by restraining one’s fullest potential might be said to be the foundation of this school of psychology. It centres its consideration on the investigation of individual encounters that appear to rise above normal presence. As such, what we think and how we feel in our changed conditions of mindfulness is the branch of knowledge of transpersonal psychology. These states might become too amid conditions of serious stretch and trouble or in snippets of remarkable energy and satisfaction. They might be stimulated amid times of rest or profound focus. Tentatively, they might be incorporated with the assistance of some particular medications, religious discussions, yoga and supernatural reflection, and so on.
2.5.9 Stimulus-Response School:
Psychology today has continued to develop in several directions. A group of extreme Psychologists called the Stimulus-Response School believe all behaviour is a series of responses to different stimuli. According to these psychologists, the stimulus connected with any response can eventually be identified. As a result, stimulus-response psychologists regard behaviour as predictable and potentially controllable.
Another important aspect of taxonomy is the dimension between relevant and irrelevant dimensions of the stimulus set. A stimulus dimension is relevant when the required response depends on the value of the stimulus in that dimension, whereas a stimulus dimension is irrelevant if the value on it are uncorrelated with the required response. (Spatial Stimulus-Response Compatibility, 1990)
2.5.10 Cognitive Psychology:
Cognitive Psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental procedures including how individuals think, see, recollect and learn. As a component of the bigger field of subjective science, this branch of psychology is identified with different controls including neuroscience, theory and etymology.
The centre of Cognitive Psychology is on how individuals procure, process and store data. There are various handy applications for Cognitive examination, for example, enhancing memory, expanding basic leadership exactness and organising instructive educational module to upgrade learning.
Stimulus (External Factor)
Affects:
Response (Human Behaviour)
Until the 1950s, behaviourism was the prevailing school of thought in psychology. Somewhere around 1950 and 1970, the tide started to move against behavioural psychology to concentrate on themes, for example, consideration, memory and critical thinking. Frequently alluded to as the psychological unrest, this period produced significant exploration on points including preparing models, subjective examination techniques and the main utilisation of the expression ‘intellectual psychology’.
The expression “intellectual psychology” was initially utilised as a part of 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive Psychology. As indicated by Neisser, discernment includes “all procedures by which the tactile information is changed, decreased, expounded, put away, recouped, and utilised. It is worried about these procedures notwithstanding when they work without applicable incitement, as in pictures and visualisations… Given such a clearing definition, it is obvious that comprehension is included in everything an individual may conceivably do; that each mental wonder is a Cognitive marvel.
Current speculations of instruction have connected numerous ideas that are central purposes of psychological psychology. Probably the most noticeable ideas include:
Metacognition: Metacognition is an expansive idea enveloping all conduct of one’s considerations and information about their own particular considering. A key territory of instructive centre in this domain is identified with self-observing, which relates profoundly to how well students can assess their own insight and apply systems to enhance information in territories in which they are lacking.
Definitive information and procedural learning: Declarative learning is a person’s “broad” learning base, while procedural learning is particular information identifying with performing specific errands. The utilisation of these intellectual standards to instruction endeavours to enlarge a student’s capacity to incorporate decisive information into recently learned methodology with an end goal to encourage quickened learning.
Information Association: Applications of psychological psychology’s comprehension of how learning is sorted out in the cerebrum has been a noteworthy centre inside the field of training as of late. The various levelled technique for sorting out data and how that maps well onto the cerebrum’s memory are ideas that have demonstrated to a great degree gainful in classrooms.
Although social transformation may not have been the primary focus in the past, a large percentage of contemporary humanistic psychologists currently investigate pressing social, cultural, and gender issues. (Hoffman, 2009) Even the earliest writers who were associated with and inspired psychological humanism explored topics as diverse as the political nature of “normal” and everyday experience (RD Laing), the disintegration of the capacity to love in modern consumerist society (Erich Fromm), (Fromm, 1956) the growing technological dominance over human life (Medard Boss), and the question of evil (Rollo May-Carl Rogers debate). In addition, Maureen O’Hara, who worked with both Carl Rogers and Paolo Freire, has pointed to a convergence between the two thinkers given their distinct but mutually related focus on developing critical consciousness of situations which oppress and dehumanise. (O’Hara, 1989)
Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach
Pros of Cognitive Approach:
Cons of Cognitive approach:
2.6 Humanistic school of psychology
Humanisticpsychology
Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the work of early pioneers like Carl Rogers and the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology. It adopts a holistic approach to human existence through investigations of meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and self-actualization.
The most general and neutral term for the movement is humanistic psychology. Phenomenological and existential psychologies can be seen as sub-kinds of humanistic psychology and as antecedents of the more recent strictly American versions of humanism professed by psychologists as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers who were not, however, the first psychologists to have an essentially humanistic orientation. Elements of humanism can be found in the psychoanalytic thought of Fromm, Horney, and even Jung and Adler and the American existential psychologist, Rollo May, anticipated many of the tenets of humanism. (Collacciani, n.d.)
2.6.1 TheThird-Force
The term ‘Third Force’ is really a general categorisation of a few introductions and accentuations inside of psychology. The ‘Third Force’ might be anything, which is not behaviourism or analysis. Components of this ‘Third Force’ are humanism, phenomenology, or existentialism. This development is multifaceted in nature: it comprises of different, notwithstanding clashing parts. It is both a response to and an augmentation of behaviourism and analysis. It is both a unique element and a pragmatic aide for a living. Enrolment in the development is independent of anyone else announcement, not by acknowledgement of an arrangement of solid standards and convictions.
The broadest and nonpartisan term for the development is humanistic psychology. Phenomenological and existential psychology projects can be seen as sub-sorts of humanistic psychology and as precursors of the later entirely American variants of humanism affirmed by psychologists as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers who were not, be that as it may, the main analysts to have a basically humanistic introduction. Components of humanism can be found in the psychoanalytic considered Fromm, Horney, and even Jung and Adler and the American existential analyst, Rollo May, expected huge numbers of the precepts of humanism.
Humanism is an endeavour to reorient psychology to more individual arranged targets. For a defender of humanism, the new development spoke to an arrival to a genuine sympathy toward awareness following 50 years of behaviourally situated test psychology and by systematically arranged profundity psychology (therapy). It might be said, humanism received the exceptional introduction to Gestalt psychology, however, broadened it from the domain of more perceptual cognizance to cover the living being’s whole identity or condition of being.
Humanistic Psychology is a contemporary manifestation of that ongoing commitment. Its message is a response to the denigration of the human spirit that has so often been implied in the image of the person drawn by behavioural and social sciences. (What is Humanistic Psychology?, n.d.)
Humanism manages the condition of a man’s mindfulness or cognizant sentiments in an understanding connection. The accompanying is normal for humanism:
• Presumes a no unthinking perspective of man,
• Does not acknowledge the guideline of determinism,
• Views man as a subject and not an article, and
• Focuses on the comprehensive versatile status of a life form’s behavioural activities.
• Each individual or his/her conduct is remarkable and must be determined as far as his/her own particular cognitive cognizant perspective.
The humanist is occupied with a man’s regular life conduct as it happens in the common habitat, not in tightened bits of simulated conduct as they happen in the research facility: By definition, humanism is both a world perspective (reasoning of man) and in addition a connected psychology (psychotherapeutic met
2.6.3 Humanism represents
2.6.4 Basic Assumptions
Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach are that behaviour must be understood in terms of the cognitive experience of the individual, (phenomenology) and that behaviour is not constrained by either past experience of the individual or current circumstances (Determinism). Instead, people can make choices (free will).
2.6.5 Methodological approaches
The research scholar here would like to include the Humanistic Psychology and Methodological approached to provide a broader understanding and permeated theories. The Humanistic psychology (and Roger’s hypothesis specifically) does not effortlessly fit lab research, i.e. target experimentation is inconceivable. Humanistic therapists are not researchers in the conventional sense, and they would prefer not to be on the grounds that they imagine that science in the present structure is not prepared to examine, clarify, or comprehend human instinct. Another science, a human science, is required. A human science would not concentrate on people as the physical sciences study physical articles, rather think about people as mindful, picking, esteeming, enthusiastic, and interesting creatures in the universe. Following conventional science does not do this, it must be dismissed. An idiographic way to deal with science is in this manner normal for humanistic exploration.
The sole model of the humanist picking research undertakings is significance. A given study is embraced in light of the fact that it is mentally pertinent and relates to the human issues and worries, as characterised by the humanism analyst. As an extended Gestalt psychology, humanism endeavours to dissect, comprehend, and externalise an individual life form’s awareness the substance of the perceptual cognizance, as well as the full scope of awareness: sentiments, self-ideas, objectives, goals, and convictions. As a type of profundity psychology, humanism must survey a few parts of the condition of the prosperity of the living being, that is, the level of self-actualisation achieved, nature of self-idea, or level of saw change in a remedial circumstance. This suggests humanists in a perfect world ought to utilise formative engaged longitudinal technique, furthermore should confront every one of the issues connected with single-contextual investigation strategy so fundamentally, this point of view supports a subjective way to deal with information gathering. The primary wellspring of information originates from clinical meetings (transcripts), the Q-sort and substance examination of clients’ announcements.
Confirmation of Rogerian hypothesis originates from a strategy called (1) Q-sort and (2) content investigation of articulations made by clients amid treatment. The objective of the Q-sort strategy is to find the thoughts individuals have about themselves and to quantify the impact of treatment. The fundamental methodology is to give a man a parcel of cards each of which contains an alternate proclamation, and after that have the individual sort the cards on a continuum from the announcement that best depict the individual to the announcement that slightest portrays him or her.
A study by Butler and Haugh (1954) outlines the Q-sort strategy. The members were individuals in directing coordinated with a controlling bunch. In the guiding gathering, the connection between the self-sort and the perfect sort was zero, however in the control amass the relationship between the two sorts was .58, showing some level of relationship. Taking after advising (normal 31 sessions for each client), this gathering was requested that sort once more. The outcomes demonstrated a relationship of .34, a critical change more than zero.
A case of substance examination is Seeman (1949) who explored 16 interviews including 10 clients at various periods of treatment. The verbal clarifications of these clients were entreated into four characterizations: (1) verbalizations of issues or symptoms, (2) affirmation of pro’s responses, (3) appreciation of issues or reactions, (4) examination of game plans for what’s to come. Seeman found that as treatment progressed, there were fewer enunciations of hindrances and issues. Signs of affirmation rose at the start and after that declined. In later gatherings, clients demonstrated more unmistakable cognizance of their difficulties and gave more clarifications conveying gets prepared for what’s to come. This study is considered, by attentive with Rogers’ speculation, as offering authenticity to his key thoughts of improvement.
2.6.6 Historical and cultural background:
Historicalrootsofthemovementslay both backs in time and in the post-WW2 period where an eclectic status quo between behaviourism, psychoanalysis and cognitive psychologist etc. was seen before the humanistic psychology appeared. Early ideas of humanism existed already in Ancient Greece, during the Renaissance and in Christianity. Humanists are like the ancient Greek humanists, and Maslow in 1973formulated that ‘thevalueswhicharetoguidehumanactionmustbefound within nature and natural reality itself’(Barber, 2015). The humanistic psychologists couldn’t acknowledge the naturalistic estimations of the behaviourists, which in their perspective were dealt with like ‘items’ with no respect to their subjectivity, awareness, and choice.
Amid the nineteenth and mid-twentieth century, a few European savants like e.g. Jean-Paul Sartre in France and Martin Heidegger in Germany related themselves with existentialism, which concentrates on moral obligation, through and through freedom, and the endeavouring towards self-awareness and satisfaction. In existentialism real decisions in life are frequently joined by nervousness, since only we are in charge of our own lives. By individuals can comprehend others by concentrating all alone cognizant experience, a position that Gestalt psychology called phenomenology. In any case, the development of humanistic psychology in the United States advanced as an issue of sympathy toward human independence. William James distributed Principles of Psychology (1890) and appeared in his works worry about existence’s issues. He composed an awesome arrangement about the self. Other self-hypotheses originate from George Herbert Mead in his book Mind, Self and Society (1934), and the existential psychology in Europe additionally offered motivation to the American advancement of humanistic psychology, which began with the distribution of Roger’s first book Counselling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice (1942).
The decade of the 1960s was a disturbed time in the United States. There was the Vietnam War, the death of Martin Luther King, the Kennedy siblings, racial challenges happened in numerous huge urban communities, and the ‘Flower children’ were in open disobedience to the estimations of their guardians and society. They dropped out of society and came back to a more straightforward life, where there was no space for judicious or observational rationality. The third-constrain development turned out to be extremely well-known in the 1960s and 1970s, yet its notoriety fell in the 1980s and keeps on doing as such yet it stays persuasive in a few sections of contemporary psychology, much the same as behaviourism and analysis.
Humanistic psychology tried to be the third-compel in psychology (behaviourism was the primary power and therapy was the second drive) and guaranteed to expand on the oversights of the two different strengths in psychology and go past them. Humanistic psychology, therefore, does not dismiss everything from the two different powers and in this manner tended to proceed with the mixed soul of the 1950s. Humanistic psychology offered an investigation and a different option for behaviourism, however, recognised that behaviourism, albeit constrained, was substantial inside of its area. Humanistic analysts tried to add to behaviourism an energy about human awareness that would round out the logical picture of human psychology. Maslow (1973):‘Iinterpretthisthird psychology (humanistic psychology) to include the first and second psychologies…I am Freudian and I am behaviouristic and I am humanistic.’
2.6.7 Basic tenets of humanistic psychology include the following
2.6.8 Development of the Field
These preparatory gatherings, in the end, prompted different advancements, which finished in the portrayal of humanistic psychology as a conspicuous “third constraint” in psychology (alongside behaviourism and therapy). Noteworthy improvements incorporated the arrangement of the Association for Humanistic Psychology (AHP) in 1961 and the dispatch of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology (initially ‘The Phoenix’) in 1961.
Thus, graduate projects in Humanistic Psychology at establishments of higher learning developed in number and enrollment. In 1971, humanistic psychology as a field was perceived by the American Psychological Association (APA) and allowed its own particular (Division 32) inside the APA. Division 32 distributes its own particular scholastic diary called The Humanistic Psychologist.
The significant scholars considered to have arranged the ground for Humanistic Psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Rollo May. Maslow was intensely affected by Kurt Goldstein amid their years together at Brandeis University. Psychoanalytic essayists additionally affected humanistic psychology. Maslow himself broadly recognised his ‘obligation to Freud’ in Towards a Psychology of Being Other psychoanalytic impacts incorporate the work of Wilhelm Reich, who examined a basically ‘decent’, sound centre self and Character Analysis (1933), and Carl Gustav Jung’s legendary and original accentuation. Other paramount motivations for and pioneers of the development incorporate Roberto Assagioli, Gordon Allport, Medard Boss, Martin Buber (near Jacob L. Moreno), James Bugental, Victor Frankl, Erich Fromm, Hans-Werner Gessmann, Amedeo Giorgi, Kurt Goldstein, Sidney Jourard, R. D. Laing, Clark Moustakas, Lewis Mumford, Fritz Perls, Anthony Sutich, Thomas Szasz, Kirk J. Schneider, and Ken Wilber.
A humanistic perspective is not contradicted to quantitative strategies, but rather, taking after Edmund Husserl:
1) Favours giving the techniques a chance to be gotten from the topic and not uncritically embracing the techniques for regular science, and
2) Advocates for methodological pluralism. Therefore, a great part of the topic of psychology fits subjective methodologies (e.g., the lived experience of distress), and quantitative strategies are for the most part proper when something can be tallied without levelling the marvels (e.g., the period of time spent crying).
2.6.9 Major Representatives of Humanistic Perspective
The most important founders Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970). Both were initially attracted to behaviourism but became aware of its limitations.
2.6.9.1 CarlRogers
Carl Rogers developed ‘Client-Centred psychotherapy’ in the 1940s and utilised it with fighters coming back from WW2. The treatment is phenomenological arranged (the specialist tries to go into the world perspective of the client and let the client work out answers for his/her own issue). The treatment was another option to the psychoanalytic strategy, and it was an essential stride in the foundation of clinical and guiding psychology in the post-war period. Rogers clashed with behaviourism due to his methodology with empathic comprehension of the client. Rogers suspected that behaviourism treated people like creatures, as machines whose conduct could be anticipated and controlled with no regard for cognizance. Amid the 1950s, Skinner and Rogers faced off regarding the relative ampleness of their perspectives. Phenomenological psychology is particularly speaking to the psychologist in view of the compassion and utilisation of subjective experience.
The target mode where we attempt to comprehend the world as an article, a subjective mode comprising of a man’s own subjective learning of individual cognizant experience, including goals and feeling of flexibility inner world. The psychologist must top this third mode. Rogers trusted that the psychologist can just help the client on the off chance that he/she comprehends the client’s close to home world and subjective self and he trusted that psychology, in the end, could discover efficient approaches to knowing the individual experience of other individuals, with the goal that treatment could be far and away superior.
Rogers argued (And this is a case of epistemological predisposition) that behaviourism limits itself only to the target method of learning thus restrains psychology to specific procedures and speculations (and not taking into consideration different methods for looking for information).
That behaviourism treats people like questions (dislike encountering subjects in their own particular right), for instance, Skinner who just acknowledges physical causality (ecological impacts in the type of possibilities of fortification). As indicated by Skinner, behaviourism does not acknowledge the uniqueness of people including free-will, awareness, subjectivity, and self-sufficiency. (Burgenthal; 1964: Man is aware…man has choice. Man is intentional)
2.6.9.3 Abraham Maslow
The Research Scholar would like to mention the great scholar Abraham Maslow. The main scholar and coordinator of humanistic psychology. He began as a Clinical Trial Analyst and after that turned his consideration regarding the issue of imagination in workmanship and science, and planned his hypothesis of self-actualisation in view of the investigation of innovative individuals. Self-actualisation made their genuine human inventive forces (a complexity to a great many people who just fulfil their requirements for nourishment, cover and so forth.). Maslow asserted that all people have innovative gifts, which could be actualized on the off chance that it was not for socially forced restraints. Both Maslow and Rogers worked at making individuals leave all the more socially agreeable ways and move them to understand their true abilities as people. Self-actualising individuals are described by the accompanying:
Maslow found what was to become the JournalofHumanisticpsychology in 1961 and the Association for Humanistic Psychology in 1963.
2.6.10 Skinner’s view of humanism and behaviourism.
B.F. Skinner. (The Humanist, July/August 1972)
There is by all accounts two methods for knowing, or thinking about, someone else. One is connected with existentialism, phenomenology, and structuralism. It is a matter of realising what a man is, or what he resemble, or what he is coming to be or getting to be. We attempt to know someone else in this sense as we probably are aware ourselves. We share his emotions through sensitivity or sympathy. Through instinct, we find his demeanours, goals, and different perspectives. We speak with him in the etymological feeling of making thoughts and sentiments regular to the two of us. We do some all the more viable on the off chance that we have built up great interpersonal relations. This is an aloof, pondering sort of knowing: If we need to anticipate what a man does or is liable to do, we accept that he, similar to us, will accord to what he is; his conduct, similar to our own, will be a declaration of his emotions, perspectives, aims states of mind, etc. The other method for knowing is a matter of what a man does. We can for the most part watch this specifically as whatever another marvel on the planet; no uncommon sort of knowing is required. We clarify why a man carries on as he does by swinging to the earth instead of inward states or exercises. The earth was viable amid the advancement of the species, and we call the outcome the human hereditary gift. An individual from the animal categories is presented to another part of that environment amid his lifetime, and from it, he obtains a collection of conduct, which changes over a living being with a hereditary blessing into a man. “One does not need to be a genius to achieve it. He thought self-actualising people were not ordinary people with something added; rather they were ordinary people with nothing taken away.” (Frager & Fadiman, 1998)
I would characterise a humanist as one of the individuals who, due to nature to which he has been uncovered, is worried for the fate of humankind. A development that calls itself ‘humanistic psychology’ takes a fairly distinctive line. It has been portrayed as ‘a third drive’ to recognise it from behaviourism and analysis; however “third” ought not to be taken to mean progressed, nor ought to “compel” propose power. Since behaviourism and analysis both perspective human conduct as a decided framework, humanistic analysts have accentuated a difference by guarding the self-sufficiency of the person. They have demanded that a man can rise above his surroundings, that he is more than a causal stage amongst conduct and environment, which he figures out what natural powers will follow up on him in a word, that he has a free decision. This position is most at home in existentialism, phenomenology, and structuralism, in light of the fact that the accentuation is on what a man is or is getting to be. Maslow’s demeanour ‘self-actualisation’ wholes it up pleasantly: The individual is to satisfy himself not only through delight, obviously, but rather through ‘otherworldly growth’….. (Shekhar, 2012)
Better types of government are not to be found in better rules, better instructive practices in better educators, better monetary frameworks in more edified administration, or better treatment in more empathetic specialists. Nor are they to be found in better subjects, students, labourers, or patients. The age-old slip-up is to search for salvation in the character of self-sufficient men and ladies as opposed to in the social situations that have shown up in the advancement of societies and that can now be expressly outlined.
By turning from man qua man to the outer states of which man’s conduct is a capacity, it has been conceivable to plan better practices being taken care of by psychotics and retardants, in child care, in training (in both possibility administration in the classroom and the outline of instructional material), in motivator frameworks in industry, and in reformatory establishments. In these and numerous different zones we can now all the more viable work for the benefit of the person, for the best great of the best number, and for the benefit of the way of life or of humanity overall.
These are certainly humanistic concerns, and no one who calls himself a humanist can afford to neglect them. Men and women have never faced a greater threat to the future of their species. There is much to be done and done quickly, and nothing less than the active prosecution of the science of behaviour will suffice. (Brunkow, 2014)
2.6.11 Counselling and Therapy
Humanistic psychology includes several approaches to counselling and therapy. Among the earliest approaches we find the developmental theory of Abraham Maslow, emphasising a hierarchy of needs and motivations; (Blok, 2012) the existential psychology of Rollo May recognizing human decision and the terrible parts of human presence; and the individual focused or Client Centred treatment of Carl Rogers, which is fixated on the clients’ ability for self-healing and comprehension of his/her own advancement. Different ways to deal with humanistic directing and treatment incorporate Gestalt treatment, humanistic psychotherapy, profundity treatment, all-encompassing well-being, experience bunches, affectability preparing, conjugal and family treatments, bodywork, and the existential psychotherapy of Medard Boss. Existential-integrative psychotherapy, created by Kirk Schneider (2008), is a moderately new advancement inside humanistic and existential treatment.
Self-improvement is additionally incorporated into humanistic psychology: Sheila Ernst and Lucy Goodison have depicted utilising a percentage of the primary humanistic methodologies in self-improvement gatherings. Co-directing, which is a simply self-improvement methodology, is viewed as going in close vicinity to humanistic psychology (see John Rowan’s Guide to Humanistic Psychology). The humanistic hypothesis has affected different types of famous treatment, including Harvey Jackins’ Re-assessment Counselling and the work of Carl Rogers.
Humanistic psychology tends to look beyond the medical model of psychology in order to open up a non-pathologizing view of the person. This usually implies that the therapist downplays the pathological aspects of a person’s life in favour of the healthy aspects. A key ingredient in this approach is the meeting between therapist and client and the possibilities for dialogue. (Manichander T. )
A key fixing in this methodology is the meeting in the middle of specialist and client and the conceivable outcomes for dialogue. The point of much humanistic treatment is to help the client approach a more grounded and more beneficial feeling of self, likewise called self-completion. This is a piece of humanistic psychology’s inspiration to be an exploration of human experience, concentrating on the real lived experience of persons.
2.6.12 Humanistic Psychology and Social Issues
Although social transformation may not have been the primary focus in the past, a large percentage of contemporary humanistic psychologists currently investigate pressing social, cultural, and gender issues. Even the earliest writers who were associated with and inspired psychological humanism explored topics as diverse as the political nature of “normal” and everyday experience (RD Laing), the disintegration of the capacity to love in modern consumerist society (Erich Fromm), the growing technological dominance over human life (Medard Boss), and the question of evil (Rollo May-Carl Rogers debate).
(Problems of Development & Learning : Psychology & Social Issues, 2015)
In addition, Maureen O’Hara, who worked with both Carl Rogers and Paolo Freire, has pointed to a convergence between the two thinkers given their distinct but mutually related focus on developing critical consciousness of situations which oppress and dehumanise.
2.6.13. Some criticism of Humanistic Psychology
The behaviourists have been the severest critics of humanistic psychology because of the phenomenological approach, which they feel, is purely subjective and dualistic. Thus, according to behaviourists, the theories lack any empirical validity and the scientific method is abandoned in favour of introspection. (Humanistic Perspective, 2015)
Skinner and Rogers were occupied with open dialogues and civil arguments on a few events. The general conclusion came to was that the two men were at inverse posts and would never concur.
Another evaluation is that reflective self-reports are famously questionable and close to a supposition to consider that what one says is truly what one feels. Testing into a theoretical internal identity is simply managing in fictions. Humanistic psychology has been considered, by a few, to be a sort of religion. These ideas should just be tackled confidence so that any sort of thought that psychology ought to be viewed as a branch of normal science is deserted. The humanistic methodology has relapsed psychology back to the Middle Ages and the Church Fathers. It is fixing every one of the endeavours of the more goal and tentatively minded analysts to accomplish the objective of psychology as a target investigation of conduct.
Psychoanalytic reactions guarantee that people can’t clarify their own particular conduct in light of the fact that the causes are to a great extent oblivious. Thusly, cognizant clarifications will be misshaped by justification or different guards.
Both analysis and behaviourism guarantee that clarification of conduct can’t be founded on confirmation of the individual who is carrying on however on the appraisal of an onlooker.
Pundits of the field call attention to that it has a tendency to disregard social change research. Isaac Prilleltensky, a self-depicted radical who champions group and women’s activist psychology, has contended for quite a long time that humanistic psychology incidentally adds to systemic foul play.
Further, it has been contended that the early incarnations of humanistic psychology did not have a combined exact base, and the modellers of the development embraced an ‘unembarrassed refusal of human correspondence and group’. In any case, as indicated by contemporary humanistic masterminds, humanistic psychology need not be comprehended to advance such thoughts as narcissism, conceit, or narrow-mindedness.
The association of humanistic discourse with narcissistic and overly optimistic worldviews is a misreading of humanistic theory. In their response to (E.P. Martin. Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), Bohart and Greening (2001) note that along with pieces on self-actualization and individual fulfilment, humanistic psychologists have also published papers on a wide range of social issues and topics, such as the promotion of international peace and understanding, awareness of the holocaust, the reduction of violence, and the promotion of social welfare and justice for all. (Humanistic Psychology, 2015)
Reactions that humanistic psychology does not have an ‘exact base’ have had a tendency to depend on professedly “confined perspectives” of what constitutes ‘observational’, an uncritical selection of common science techniques (rather than human science strategies), and an inside and out disregard of Rogers’ own experimental work. Despite what might be expected, humanistic psychology has a long history of exact examination, including yet not constrained to the work of Maslow, Amedeo Giorgi and David Elkins. Truth be told, humanistic psychology research follows its roots the distance back to American psychology pioneer William James’ perfect work of art, “Assortments of Religious Experience”.
2.7 CONCEPT OF LEARNING
2.7.1 Meaning and Definitions of learning
Learning, in psychology is the process by which a relatively lasting change in potential behaviour occurs because of practice or experience. Learning is also a process of acquiring modifications in existing knowledge, skills, habits, or tendencies through experience, practice, or exercise.
The researcher finds the following various definitions regarding the learning: (Introduction to Learning, 2011)
Gates and others “Learning is the modification of behaviourthrough experience”.
Henry, P smith “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour orstrengthening or weakening of old behaviour as a result of experience”.
Crow and Crow “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledgeand attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things, and it operates in an individual’s attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations”.
Skinner “Learning is the process of progressive behaviouradaptation.”
Munn “To learn is to modify behaviour and experience.”
M. L. Bigge “Learning may be considered as a change in insights,behaviour, perception, motivation or a combination of these”.
The above definitions emphasise four attributes of learning…
2.7.2 Characteristics of Learning
Yoakum & Simpson have stated the following general characteristics of learning: Learning is growth, adjustment, an organisation of experience, purposeful, both individual and social, a product of the environment.
According to W.R Mc law,(Ysthename, 2014), learning has the following characteristics.
1. Learning is a persistent alteration of conduct proceeds all through life.
2. Learning is pervasive. It ventures into all parts of human life.
3. Learning includes the entire individual, socially, candidly and mentally.
4. Learning is regularly an adjustment in the association of conduct.
5. Learning is formative. Time is one of its measurements.
6. Learning is receptive to motivating forces. Much of the time positive motivators, for example, prizes are best than negative impetuses, for example, disciplines.
7. Learning is constantly worried about objectives. These objectives can be communicated as far as discernible conduct.
8. Interest and learning are absolutely related. The individual learns to wager those things, which he is keen on learning. Most young men discover figuring out how to play football less demanding than figuring out how to include portions.
9. Learning relies on upon development and inspiration.
2.7.3 Types of Learning
Learning has been characterised from multiple points of view. (Work, n.d.)
I. Informal, formal and non-formal learning: Depending in transit of obtaining it learning might be casual, formal or non-formal.
II. Individual or Group learning: Learning is called either individual or gathering learning relying on the people included in the learning process.
III. Another order includes the sorts of the movement included
(a) Motor learning: – when learning includes principally the utilisation of muscles it is called as engine learning. e.g.: figuring out how to stroll, to work a
(b) Discrimination learning: – Learning which includes the demonstration of segregation is called separation learning. E.g. newborn child segregates in the middle of mother and a close relative, drain and water.
(c) Verbal learning: – when learning includes the utilisation of words it is called as verbal learning.
(d) Concept learning: – when learning includes the development of idea it is called as idea learning.
(e) Sensory learning: – when learning is concerned with discernment and sense it is a tangible lead.
2.7.4 NATURE OF LEARNING:
A. Learning is adjustment or alteration: We all constantly communicate with our surroundings. We regularly make alteration and adjust to our social surroundings. Through a procedure of constant taking in, the individual sets himself up for important conformity or adjustment. That is the reason learning is additionally portrayed as a procedure of dynamic conformity to constantly evolving conditions, which one experiences.
B. Learning is change: Learning is regularly considered as a procedure of change with practice or preparing. We realise numerous things, which help us to enhance our execution.
C. Learning is sorting out experience: Learning is not a minor expansion of information. It is the rearrangement of experience.
D. Learning brings behavioural changes: Whatever the bearing of the progressions might be, learning acquires dynamic changes the conduct of a person. That is the reason he can conform to evolving circumstances.
E. Learning is dynamic: Learning does not happen without a reason and self-action. In any showing learning prepare, the movement of the learner tallies more than the action of an instructor.
F. Learning is objective coordinated: when the point and motivation behind learning are clear, an individual adapts quickly. It is the reason or objective, which figures out what, the learner finds in the learning circumstances and how he acts. On the off chance that there is no reason or objective learning can scarcely be seen.
G. Learning is widespread and constant: All living animals learn. Each minute the individual draws in himself to take in more and that’s just the beginning. Right from the conception of a youngster till the demise learning proceeds.
2.7.5 PROCESS OF LEARNING
Learning is a process. It is carried out through steps. Learning process involves –
Let us see the steps one by one –
(a) An intention or a drive: Motive is the dynamic constraint that stimulates conduct and urges a person to act. We do any action due to our intentions or our needs. At the point when our need is, sufficiently solid we are constrained to make progress toward its fulfilment. Learning happens on account of reaction to some incitement. For whatever length of time that our present conduct, information, expertise and execution are satisfactory to fulfil everything our needs, utilise don’t feel any need to change our conduct towards it or secure new learning and aptitudes. It is this necessity, which starts a learner to learn something.
(b) Goal: Every individual need to set an unequivocal objective for accomplishment. We ought to dependably have a positive objective for accomplishing anything. On the off chance that a clear objective is set than learning gets to be intentional and intriguing.
(c) Obstacle/piece/obstruction: The deterrent or square or the boundary is just as vital during the time spent on learning. The hindrance or the obstructions keep us far from achieving the objective.
2.8 Reviews of learning theories (Five basic learning theories)
Fundamental Orientations (Perspectives) for Learning Theories
Hypotheses about human learning can be gathered into five wide “points of view”. These are:
1. Behaviourism : concentrate on perceptible conduct
2. Cognitive : learning as absolutely a mental/neurological procedure
3. Constructivism: learner consolidates new data with existing information
4. Humanistic: feelings and influence assume a part in learning
5. Social: people learn best in gathering exercises
Four orientations to learning (after Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 138)
| Aspect | Behaviourist | Cognitivist | Humanist | Social and situational |
| Learning theorists | Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson, Guthrie, Hull, Tolman, Skinner | Koffka, Köhler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne | Maslow, Rogers | Bandura, Lave and Wenger, Salomon |
| View of the learning process | Change in behaviour | Internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception | A personal act to fulfil potential. | Interaction /observation in social contexts. Movement from the periphery to the centre of a community of practice |
| Locus of learning | Stimuli in external environment | Internal cognitive structuring | Affective and cognitive needs | Learning is in the relationship between people and environment. |
| Purpose in education | Produce behavioural change in the desired direction | Develop capacity and skills to learn better | Become self-actualized, autonomous | Full participation in communities of practice and utilisation of resources |
| Educator’s role | Arranges environment to elicit desired response | Structures content of learning activity | Facilitates development of the whole person | Works to establish communities of practice in which conversation and participation can occur. |
| Manifestations in adult learning | Behavioural objectives |
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